Milestones in
History and Government
Form 4
Priscilla Kivuitu
Fungo Chenge
ii
ii
Published by
Longhorn Publishers (K) Ltd.,
Funzi Road, Industrial Area,
P.O. Box 18033-00500,
Nairobi, Kenya.
Longhorn Publishers (U) Ltd.,
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Longhorn Publishers (T) Ltd.,
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© Text: P. Kivuitu, F. Chenge, 2005
© Illustrations: Longhorn Publishers, 2005
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
Maps drawn by Michael Mwangi
Drawings by George Obonyo
Design and Layout by Loise Wairimu Mwangi
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher.
First published 2005
Corrected edition 2011
ISBN 978 9966 49 633 5
Acknowledgement
The Publishers are grateful to the following for their photographs that we have reproduced
in this book.
Nation Media Group, Oryx Photo-Video Services, The Kenya National Archives, Kenya
Government Information Service and Monitor Newspaper.
We have made all the efforts to acknowledge the sources of photographs used. In case we have left any
source, it is unintentional and we shall acknowledge such a source in subsequent editions, if notied of
the omission.
Printed by
iii
CHAPTER 1: WORLD WARS .................................................................................. 1
The First World War (1914-1918) ..................................................... 1
Causes of the war ........................................................................... 1
Course of the war ........................................................................... 5
Results of World War I ................................................................... 14
The League of Nations ...................................................................... 16
Formation ....................................................................................... 16
Covenant of the League ................................................................. 17
Organisation ................................................................................... 17
Performance ................................................................................... 19
Failures of the League of Nations .................................................. 20
The Second World War (1939-1945)................................................. 21
Causes of the war ........................................................................... 21
Course of the war ........................................................................... 26
Results of World War II.................................................................. 33
CHAPTER 2: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS .................................................... 35
International organisations ................................................................ 35
The United Nations Organisation (UN) ............................................ 35
Formation of the UN ...................................................................... 35
UN membership since 1945........................................................... 36
Organisation ................................................................................... 37
Performance of the UN .................................................................. 40
Challenges...................................................................................... 42
The Commonwealth .......................................................................... 43
Formation ....................................................................................... 43
Membership ................................................................................... 44
Functions........................................................................................ 45
Challenges...................................................................................... 46
Non-Aligned Movement ................................................................... 46
Formation of Non-Aligned Movement .......................................... 47
Reasons for formation of the Non-Aligned Movement ................. 47
Performance of the Non-Aligned Movement................................. 47
Challenges facing the Non-Aligned Movement............................. 49
The Cold War .................................................................................... 49
Causes of the Cold War.................................................................. 50
Course of the Cold War.................................................................. 52
Decline and end of the Cold War ................................................... 54
Effects of the Cold War .................................................................. 55
CONTENTS
iv
iv
CHAPTER 3: CO-OPERATION IN AFRICA.......................................................... 58
Pan-Africanism.................................................................................. 58
Origin ............................................................................................. 58
Development .................................................................................. 59
Performance of Pan-Africanism..................................................... 62
Organisation of African Unity (OAU)................................................ 62
Formation ....................................................................................... 63
Charter............................................................................................ 65
Structure of OAU ........................................................................... 66
Performance ................................................................................... 67
Challenges...................................................................................... 65
African Union (AU) .......................................................................... 69
Formation ....................................................................................... 69
Charter............................................................................................ 69
Structure of African Union............................................................. 70
East African Community (EAC) ....................................................... 71
Formation ....................................................................................... 71
Organisation of EAC...................................................................... 73
Challenges up to 1977.................................................................... 74
Rebirth of East African Community................................................... 75
Formation ....................................................................................... 75
Organisation .................................................................................. 76
Performance and Challenges.......................................................... 77
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).............. 77
Formation ....................................................................................... 77
Organisation ................................................................................... 78
Performance ................................................................................... 79
Challenges...................................................................................... 79
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) ....... 80
Formation ....................................................................................... 80
Organisation ................................................................................... 81
Functions........................................................................................ 82
Performance ................................................................................... 82
Challenges...................................................................................... 83
CHAPTER 4: NATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES (KENYA) ........................................ 85
African Socialism.............................................................................. 85
Origin and Development.............................................................. 85
Harambee .......................................................................................... 86
Origin and Development.............................................................. 86
Nyayoism .......................................................................................... 88
Origin and Development.............................................................. 88
Impact of National Philosophies .................................................. 88
Impact of African Socialism ........................................................ 88
v
Impact of Harambee Philosophy............................................... 88
Impact of Nyayo Philosophy .................................................... 90
CHAPTER 5: POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS
AND CHALLENGES IN KENYA SINCE INDEPENDENCE ...... 92
Political developments from 1963-1991 ........................................... 92
Multi-party democracy in Kenya ................................................. 99
Challenges of multi-party democracy .......................................... 102
The role of political parties in government and nation building.. 103
Economic developments and challenges........................................... 103
Land policies ................................................................................ 105
Challenges on land.................................................................... 108
Industry ........................................................................................ 110
Challenges on Industry ............................................................. 111
Social developments and challenges................................................. 113
Education ..................................................................................... 113
Challenges in the provision of Education ................................. 114
Health Services ............................................................................ 116
Challenges that face the provision of health care services
in Kenya .................................................................................... 118
Culture and Sports........................................................................ 120
Challenges in culture and sports .................................................. 122
CHAPTER 6: POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS
AND CHALLENGES IN AFRICA SINCE INDEPENDENCE ..... 126
Social, economic and political developments in the Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC) ........................................................... 126
Political developments in DRC.................................................... 126
Economic developments in DRC................................................. 130
Social developments in DRC ....................................................... 132
Political, economic and social developments in Tanzania ................ 132
Political developments in Tanzania.............................................. 132
Economic developments in Tanzania........................................... 135
Social developments in Tanzania ................................................. 136
Political, economic and social challenges in Africa since
independence..................................................................................... 137
Political challenges ...................................................................... 137
Economic challenges.................................................................... 138
Social challenges.......................................................................... 140
CHAPTER 7: DEVOLVED GOVERNMENT............................................................ 143
Meaning of devolved government .................................................... 143
Objectives of devolution of government........................................... 143
Principles of devolved government .................................................. 144
Structure and functions of county government................................. 144
vi
vi
County assembly............................................................................... 145
Executive Committee........................................................................ 147
Relationship between national and county government ................... 149
Challenges facing the county governments and possible solutions .. 149
CHAPTER 8: PUBLIC REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN KENYA................. 151
Sources of public revenue ................................................................ 153
National government.................................................................... 153
County government...................................................................... 156
Expenditure of public revenue ..................................................... 156
National government.................................................................... 156
County government...................................................................... 157
Management of public nance ......................................................... 158
National government.................................................................... 158
County government........................................................................... 159
Functions of the commission on revenue Allocation ................... 160
CHAPTER 9: THE ELECTORAL PROCESS AND FUNCTIONS OF
GOVERNMENT IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD .............. 162
United States of America (USA)....................................................... 162
The Electoral Process in the USA................................................ 163
The Party National Convention.................................................... 163
The Electoral College................................................................... 164
Voter Registration......................................................................... 165
The Nature of Campaigns in the American Electoral Process ..... 166
Presidential Elections................................................................... 167
Congressional Elections............................................................... 167
Functions of USA Government......................................................... 169
The Legislature................................................................................... 170
The Executive..................................................................................... 171
The Federal Judicial System .............................................................. 174
Britain................................................................................................ 176
The electoral process in Britain ................................................... 176
General elections............................................................................ 177
Voter registration............................................................................ 177
Nomination of parliamentary candidates ....................................... 179
Campaigns...................................................................................... 179
Polling ............................................................................................ 179
Local elections ............................................................................... 179
Functions of Government in Britain.................................................. 181
The Monarchy .............................................................................. 181
The Legislature ............................................................................ 182
The Executive .............................................................................. 183
The Judiciary................................................................................ 185
vii
India................................................................................................... 187
The electoral process in India............................................................. 187
Voter registration............................................................................ 190
Nominations ................................................................................... 191
Campaigns...................................................................................... 191
Polling ............................................................................................ 194
Functions of government in India ..................................................... 196
The Legislature................................................................................... 196
The Executive..................................................................................... 197
The Judiciary ...................................................................................... 199
GLOSSARY............................................................................................. 202
viii
viii
1
PB
The history of the world during the
20th century was shaped by wars.
The rst of these, the First World War,
involved all the continents and almost
every country in the world, directly
or indirectly. The armies deployed
by the warring nations to the war
front were also large. There was more
direct involvement of civilians in the
war, and for the rst time in history,
women began to perform tasks that
were previously done by men. They
worked in munition factories and
in the transport systems. There was
direct attack on civilians from the air.
New types of aircraft, for example,
the German Zeppelin were developed.
The scientific and technological
developments of the 19th and
20th
centuries were applied in the
manufacture of deadly weapons such
as tanks, ame throwers,poisonous
gases, large battleships, sub-marines,
and military aircraft developed and
used.
In the course of the war, propaganda
was increasingly used as a weapon.
It was used to convince their citizens
as well as those from neutral nations
that it was fighting for a good
cause. Propaganda was also used to
demoralise enemy forces and civilians
by spreading false rumours about the
war.
The effects of the war were disastrous.
There were huge losses in both human
and material resources. It seemed
then, that the horrors of the war had
frightened the nations of the world
so much that they would never want
to allow themselves to be involved
in another war. This was not to be.
Twenty years later, another world war
broke out. The impact of both wars
has continued to inuence relations
between the nations of the world.
The First World War was mainly
caused by worsening international
relations among European powers
among others reasons. It was fought
in Europe, Africa, the Middle East and
the Far East.
Causes of the war
The following were the causes of the
First World War:
(i) Pre-war alliances
The system of alliances dates back
to the late 19th Century was a
major contributor to the outbreak
of World War I. In 1871, Germany
defeated France in the Franco-
Prussian war of 1870-1871. After
the war, Bismarck, the German
Chancellor, began to form alliances
with other European powers in
order to maintain Germany’s
power in Europe. He also
formed alliances to keep France
permanently isolated and further
weakened. Bismarck feared that,
if left unchecked, France might in
the future wage a war of revenge
against Germany.
The First World War (1914-1918)
Unit
1
WORLD WARS
3
2
By the Triple Alliance, the three powers
pledged to support one another in case
of an attack by any other power. The
Triple Alliance boosted Germany’s
position in Europe at the expense of
France.
In response to this, in 1893 France
formed a Dual Alliance with Russia.
The formation of the Dual Alliance
had far reaching implications in
Continental Europe. These were:
a) Germany’s attempts to isolate
France were brought to an end.
b) It meant that if a war was to break
out in Europe, Germany would be
forced to ght on two fronts; the
western front against France, and
the eastern front against Russia.
c) Britain, which had not join any
alliance was isolated.
By 1904 there existed two opposing
alliance systems the Triple Alliance
and the Triple Entente. Powers
which were allied to each other
had committed themselves to help
each other in the event of war. This
encouraged countries to be aggressive
because they were not only assured
of support by their allies in the event
of war, but they also knew that if war
broke out, they would not ght alone
since the powers in the two alliances
would be dragged into it as well.
(ii) Colonial rivalry among
European states
Long before the outbreak of World
War I, there were conicts between
European powers. Although some
of these were successfully sorted
out through diplomacy, towards
the end of the 19th century, Europe
was almost at the verge of war
over colonial possessions. The
differences were however sorted
out amicably during the Berlin
Conference (1884-1885). The race
In 1879, he signed the Dual Alliance
with Austria-Hungary. In 1882, Italy
joined the Dual Alliance as a result of
the French occupation of Tunis in 1881.
The Dual Alliance thus translated into
the Triple Alliance.
Triple Entente
Fig.1.2: Countries in the Triple Entente.
France
Britain
Russia
Triple Alliance
Fig.1.1: Countries in the Triple Alliance.
Austria-Hungary
Italy
Germany
After the death of Queen Victoria
in 1901, her successor, Edward VII
reconciled Britain with France and the
two nations signed the Dual Entente,
in 1904. In the same year Russia joined
the Dual Entente of Britain and France
which now became the Triple Entente.
3
2
for colonies therefore created
tension among competing powers
thus culminating into war.
(iii) Economic rivalries
The Industrial Revolution in
Europe had led to a scramble
for colonies among European
powers in Africa and elsewhere.
Colonies were regarded as sources
of raw materials and markets for
European manufactured goods.
European entrepreneurs could
also invest their surplus capital
there. After unication in 1871,
Germany joined the race for
colonies. This caused anxiety
in Britain as Germany’s rush
for colonies threatened British
interests in various parts of the
world.
(iv)Military and the arms race
The period between 1900 and 1914
was marked by an increase in
competition for military supremacy
among European powers. While
Britain remained unchallenged as
the world’s naval power, the other
European powers began to build
up large armies and to develop new
arms and ammunition. With time
Britain’s position as a naval power
also began to be challenged.
The real struggle for military
supremacy was mainly between
Britain and Germany. In 1898,
Germany began to build a strong
navy and by 1900 she had doubled
her fleet. Britain retaliated by
producing a new type of battleship,
the Dreadnought in 1906. Germany
started similar buildups and
in 1907 built the Nassau. Other
powers began similar build-ups
and by 1914, Britain had nineteen
Dreadnoughts, Germany thirteen,
the USA eight, France eight, Japan
four, Austria-Hungary two and
Italy one.
In addition to the battleships,
the powers began to develop new
weapons for use on land. The
competition for military superiority
continued up to 1914 when war
broke out.
(v) The First and S econd Moroccan
crises, 1905 and 1911
The rst Moroccan crisis occurred
in 1905. It arose out of a secret clause
in the Dual Entente signed between
Britain and France in 1904. The
secret clause had given Britain a
free hand in Egypt, in return for her
recognition of France’s supremacy
in Morocco. The contents of the
secret clause leaked out and
Germany was infuriated because of
her exclusion from Morocco where
she had interests. Consequently, a
conference was held at Algeciras
in Southern Spain in January 1906
to settle the dispute. During the
conference, Germany suffered a
double blow; she was outvoted
by Britain, France and Russia
who refused to support the idea
of an independent Moroccan state
and she also lost Italy’s support.
The result was a defeat for the
Germany Kaiser Wilhem II, and
the strengthening of relations
between Britain, France and
Russia.
The second Moroccan crisis
occurred in 1911 when an uprising
broke out against the sultan who
was pro-France. France sent
troops to suppress the uprising.
Germany retaliated by sending her
gun boat, the Panther to the port
5
4
of Agadir to protect her interests
in Morocco. Germany insisted that
France was acting contrary to the
Algeciras agreement. When the
Kaiser attempted to negotiate with
France, Britain insisted that she
be party to the negotiations. This
raised tension among countries.
(vi)
Nationalism and the problems
of multi-racial empires
Although the tide of nationalism
had been sweeping across Europe
throughout the 19th century,
there still existed a few multi-
racial empires whose subjects
were ruled against their will. The
French speaking people in Alsace
and Lorraine were opposed to
German rule. The Serbs, Croats,
Poles, Czechs and Italians wanted
independence from Austria-
Hungary. Most of these people
were supported in their quest for
independence by Britain, France
and Russia.
The Ottoman Empire (Turkish
Empire) controlled large areas of
the Balkan Peninsula. The subjects
in the Balkans differed in language,
religion and culture from their
Turkish overlords. They began to
respond to the spirit of nationalism
that was then spreading across
Europe. Their efforts were
supported by European powers
who hoped to gain territory after
the disintegration of the Ottoman
Empire. The actions of European
powers, combined with nationalism
in the Balkans were largely
responsible for the outbreak of
World War I.
(vii)
The Sarajevo assassination
On 28
th
June 1914, Archduke Franz
Ferdinand, together with his wife was
assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia. He
was the heir to the throne of Austria-
Hungary.
Fig.1.3: Archduke Franz Ferdinand who was
assassinated in Bosnia.
The assassin, Gavrilo Princip was
a member of a Serbian terrorist
organisation called the “Black Hand”.
The organisation, founded in 1911,
aimed at liberating Serbs from Austrian
control. The movement however did
not have the support of the Serbian
government as it was considered to be
too radical. Nevertheless, Serbia was
accused of involvement.
In the meantime, consultations
began between Austria-Hungary and
Germany as to what course of action
to take. Germany assured Austria-
Hungary of her support. Austria-
Hungary then issued an ultimatum
consisting of three demands to the
Serbian government and threatened
war if these demands were not met.
5
4
The Austrian demands were that:
(a) All anti-Austrian organisation in
Serbia be suppressed.
(b) All Serbian ofcials whom Austria
objected be dismissed.
(c) Serbia accepts the policing of her
territory by Austrian authorities
to ensure compliance with the rst
two demands.
Serbia accepted the rst two demands
but rejected the third which she
suggested could be left for arbitration
by the International Court of Justice.
Acceptance to the third demand
would have amounted to loss of her
independence and sovereignty.
Austria refused to accept anything
less and so declared war on Serbia
on 28
th
July 1914. Russia began to
mobilise her forces in support of
Serbia and when Germany demanded
that she demobilise her forces, she
refused. Germany therefore declared
war on Russia on 1
st
August 1914
and further demanded that France
remains neutral in this conict. France
rejected this demand and therefore
Germany declared war on France on
3
rd
August 1914. Britain joined the war
on 4
th
August after German armies
invaded Belgium in deance of the
Treaty of London of 1839, which had
guaranteed the neutrality of Belgium.
The First World War had begun.
The European powers were divided
into two opposing camps; the Allies
(members of Triple Entente) and the
Central Powers (members of Triple
Alliance).
The Allies comprised:
(i) Britain
(ii) France
(iii) Russia
(iv) Belgium
(v) Serbia
(vi) Montenegro
However, in the course of the war,
more nations joined on the side of
the Allies. The Central Powers on the
other hand comprised:
(i) Germany
(ii) Austria- Hungary
(iii) Turkey
(iv) Bulgaria
Course of the war
The war was fought in three continents;
Europe, Africa and Asia. It was fought
on both land and sea. In Europe, the
war was fought on two fronts. On the
western front the war was between
Germany on one hand and Britain,
France and Belgium on the other. On
the eastern front, Germany, Austria-
Hungary and Turkey mainly fought
against Russian forces.
(a) The Western Front
The war in the west was fought
in Belgium and France as per the
Schlieffen plan. Alfred von Schlieffen,
the chief of the German General
Staff had in 1905 laid plans for the
war against France. Von Schlieffen
believed that if Germany went to
war, it would be against France
and Russia. This would therefore
mean that Germany would ght on
two fronts. The Schlieffen plan was
therefore intended to deal with this
possibility. The plan gambled on the
slow mobilisation of Russian forces
and the rapid attack of France through
Belgium.
Germany therefore invaded Belgium as
planned but unfortunately the Belgians
put up a strong resistance. The attack
on Belgium therefore took longer than
7
6
Fig.1.4: European alignment in World War I.
R U S S I A
SPAIN
FRANCE
ITALY
G E R M A N Y
SWEDEN
ROMANIA
FINLAND
BULGARIA
GREECE
GREAT
BRITIAN
HUNGARY
SICILY
BELGIUM
SWITZERLAND
ALBANIA
NETHERLANDS
DENMARK
PORTUGAL
CYPRUS
CRETE
LUX.
Sofia
Rome
Bern
Kiev
Riga
Oslo
Prague
Minsk
Vienna
Ankara
Marseilles
London
W arsaw
Berlin
Dublin
Moscow
Athens
Vilnius
Odessa
Budapest
Bucharest
Stockholm
Venice
Gallipoli
Constantinople
Dardanelles
Smyrna
O
T
T
O
M
A
N
E
M
P
I
R
E
Salonica
MONT.
Naples
SARDINIA
CORSICA
M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A
Aix
Geneva
Orleans
Brest
Paris
Chateu-Thierry
Verdun
R. Marne
Rhone R.
Somme R.
Ypres
Lille
Loire R.
ARGONNE
Southampton
NORWAY
Petrograd
Warsaw
POLAND
AUSTRIA
Rhine R.
Oder R.
Danube R.
Belgrade
SERBIA
Caporetto
Lemburg
Cracow
Hamburg
Danzig
Tannenberg
EAST PRUSSTA
Stasbourg
Munich
UKRAINE
Dnieper R.
Smolensk
Brest-Litovsk
Pripet
Marshes
Volga R.
Don R.
CASPIAN SEA
BLACK SEA
ADRIATIC SEA
NORTH
SEA
BALTIC SEA
A L A N T I C O C E A N
EUROPEAN ALIGNMENT
IN WORLD WAR I, 1914-1916
Central Powers
Allied Powers
0
100
200
300
400
500
Miles
7
6
anticipated, thus enabling the British
Expeditionary Force under Sir John
French to reach Belgium. Inspite of the
British entry into the war, the Germans
fought on. Within three weeks from
the start of the war, they were on the
outskirts of Paris, the French capital.
Their advance was, however, slowed
down by combined British and French
forces. An attempt to change their plan
of attack down the River Marne was
foiled as reinforcements were rushed
to defend it.
The failure of the attack led to a German
retreat and a military stalemate on the
western front which took the form
of the Trench Warfare. The opposing
sides dug a network of trenches
stretching from the Belgian coast to
Switzerland. The area between the
trenches was a no man’s land. This is
where ghting took place. Barbed wire
entanglements were laid and troops
with ries and machine guns were
stationed there. Soldiers took cover
in the trenches to escape machine gun
re and aircraft bombings.
The war in the west was static for the
next three years and attempts by the
military commanders on both sides to
break out of this stalemate led to the
deaths of thousands of soldiers. In the
1916 Battle of Somme, 60,000 British
soldiers were killed, in the Battle of
Verdun the Germans lost 281,000 and
the French lost 315,000 soldiers.
The factors that contributed to this
military stalemate were:
(i) Both sides were evenly matched.
(ii) The T rench W arfare tended to
shield defenders.
Fig.1.5: Map showing the Schlieffen plan.
9
8
(iii)Defenders used modern weapons
and techniques of warfare, for
example, machine guns, barbed
wire defences and tanks.
(iv) Russian forces were mobilised
earlier than anticipated.
(b) The Eastern Front
The Russian invasion of East Prussia
in August 1914 triggered war on the
eastern front. The war on the eastern
front was initially between Russia on
one hand and Germany and Austria-
Hungary on the other. Despite some
initial successes, the Russians were
defeated by German armies at the
battles of Tannenberg (1914) and the
Masurian Lakes (1915).
Turkey entered the war on the side
of the Central Powers in November
1914 and Bulgaria in September 1915.
In May 1915, Italy joined the Allies.
Turkey’s entry into the war on the side
of Central Powers had far reaching
consequences on the war on the
eastern front. These were:
(i) She opened up the Dardanelles
straits to German warships. This
enabled the Germans to launch
attacks on Russian ports and
shipping in the Black Sea.
(ii) Turkey’s large population as
well as her control of strategic
areas in the Middle East such as
Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and
Arabia were of great help to the
Central Powers.
The war on the eastern front dragged
on with few successes and heavy
casualties. The Russian army, though
large, was poorly trained and ill
equipped, hence heavy casualties.
The war on the eastern front was
influenced by events in Russia
in 1917. In that year, the T sarist
regime was overthrown (Bolshevik
Revolution). The new leaders did not
wish to continue with the war against
Germany. A peace treaty, the Treaty
of Brest-Litovsk, was signed with
Germany on 3
rd
March 1918. Germany
therefore released more of her soldiers
to the western front.
The war at sea
In 1914, Britain was still the undisputed
naval power. She used her navy to
blockade German ports, to ensure they
did not get supplies of food and raw
materials. Germany retaliated by using
the German U-boats (submarines)
to sink all ships which were bound
for British ports. By February 1915,
Germany had declared the seas around
the British Isles a war zone in which all
enemy ships would be sunk, with or
without warning.
On 7
th
May 1915, German submarines
sank a USA liner, the Lusitania, off
the coast of Ireland, leading to the
deaths of one thousand two hundred
people who included Americans.
This incident horried the western
world and brought the USA to the
brink of war with Germany. After this
Germany agreed not to sink passenger
ships without warning. In March
1916 however, Germany violated this
agreement when she sunk the Sussex,
a British ship carrying American
passengers.
Early in 1917, the German High
C ommander declared unrestricted
submarine warfare on all ships trading
with Britain. Ships from neutral
countries were no longer issued with
a warning and were sunk on sight. In
April, Germany sunk 875,000 tons of
allied and neutral shipping.
9
8
The declaration of unrestricted
submarine warfare brought the USA
into war against Germany. Up to
1917 the USA had remained neutral.
Ships from the warring nations were
allowed to enter American ports and
take cargo of raw materials and arms.
American banks even availed loans to
all countries.
The reasons for USA neutrality were:
(i) The USA wished to maintain
neutrality in European affairs as
per the Monroe Doctrine of 1823.
The war was regarded as a purely
an European affair.
(ii) The USA feared that a declaration
of war on Germany would lead
to a civil war between Americans
of German descent and those of
British, French and Russian descent.
(iii) The USA feared that her citizens
of German descent would revolt.
(iv) USA was gaining economically
from trade with both sides.
The USA entered the war on the side
of the Allies for the following reasons:
(i) In 1917, Germany declared
unrestricted submarine warfare.
Many ships were sunk leading to
the deaths of many Americans.
(ii) In 1917, Alfred Zimmerman, the
German Foreign Minister sent a
telegram to the German Embassy
in Mexico. In the telegram he
urged Mexico to attack the USA
from the south and recover
New Mexico. The telegram was
intercepted and the contents
published in the American press
prompting a public outcry at
German interference in American
affairs.
(iii) The USA had given big loans to
the Allies during the war and she
feared that an Allied defeat would
lead to loss of the money.
On 6
th
April 1917, the USA Congress
voted in favour of a declaration of war
on the Central Powers. Her entry into
the war led to Allied victory. Though
the USA’s troops did not play a
major part in the actual ghting, their
presence boosted the morale of the
Allies and weakened that of Germany.
The effects of the Allied blockade of
Germany also began to be felt as it
limited her access to war materials,
food supplies and medicine.
In 1918, Germany suffered a major
defeat on the western front and her
forces were pushed to her frontiers. In
the meantime Germany’s allies began
to surrender one by one. Bulgaria
surrendered in September, Turkey
in October and Austria-Hungary in
November 1918. Within Germany,
there was growing unrest and even a
threat of revolution. Faced with defeat,
the Kaiser William II abdicated and
ed to Holland. A German republic
was proclaimed and an armistice
signed with the western powers.
11
10
Date and Month Year Event
June 28th 1914 Assassination of Franz Ferdinand and his wife by
Gavrilo Princip, a Serb nationalist.
July 28th 1914 Austria declares war on Serbia.
August 1st 1914 Germany declares war on Russia.
August 3rd 1914 Germany declares war on France.
August 4th 1914 Britain joins the war after the German invasion of
Belgium.
August 29th 1914 Russian advance into Germany halted at Tannenberg.
September 1914 German advance into France stopped at Marne.
November 1914 Turkey joins the war on the Central Powers’ front.
April 1915 Italy joins the war on the Allied front.
May 7th 1915 The Lusitania, a USA liner, is sunk by a German
Submarine.
September 1915 Bulgaria joins the war on the Central Powers’ front.
October 1915 Austria-Hungary invades Serbia.
March 9th 1916 Portugal declares war on Germany.
March 1916 The Sussex, a British ship is sunk by a German
submarine.
February – December 1916 Battle of Verdun.
July – November 1916 Battle of Somme.
August 27th 1916 Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary.
September 1916 Defeat of Romania by the Central Powers.
March 1917 Czar Nicholas II of Russia abdicates.
April 6th 1917 USA declares war on the Central Powers.
November 7th 1917 The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia begins.
December 1917 The Bolsheviks sign an armistice with Germany.
January 1918 President Woodrow Wilson of the USA publishes a
14-Point peace plan.
March 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ends war in Russia.
August 1918 Allies break through German lines.
September 1918 Bulgaria surrenders.
11
10
October 1918 Turkey surrenders.
November 4th 1918 Austria-Hungary surrenders.
November 9th 1918 The German Kaiser, Wilhelm II abdicates.
November 11th 1918 An armistice is signed between Germany and the
Allies. This brings World War I to an end.
Table 1.1: Time chart showing the major events of World war I
as unnecessarily aggressive, thus
their support for the Allies.
(ii) Germany’s declaration of
unrestricted submarine warfare
reinforced the universal hatred of
German militarism and brought
about the ultimate decision by the
USA to intervene in the war.
(iii) Failure of the Schlieffen Plan.
The Peace Treaties
In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson,
President of the USA , gave a speech
to the Congress in which he outlined
the F ourteen Points which were essential
for the maintenance of world peace.
Among these were the three great
principles which formed the basis of
world peace. These were:
(i) Self-determination of all peoples,
that is, the right of peoples all over
the world to rule themselves.
(ii) The need to make public all
diplomatic and international
agreements.
(iii)The need to establish a League
of Nations which would provide
an avenue for discussing all
international problems, and protect
small states from aggression by
larger ones.
In January 1919, statesmen from the
27 Allied countries converged at Paris,
France to determine the fate of the
defeated powers. The Central Powers
were not party to the discussions,
and were simply presented with the
Reasons for Allied success
The following reasons led to the
success of the Allied forces:
(i) The Allies had adequate manpower
as compared to the Central Powers.
The allied camp had a total of 27
countries while the Central Powers
had only four.
(ii) The Allies possessed more wealth
in terms of raw materials and
industrial products obtained
mainly from the vast British Empire
and the USA.
(iii) Allied control of vital sea lanes
in the North Sea and the Atlantic
Ocean ensured safe transportation
of food , raw materials, troops and
equipment. This enabled them to
blockade the Central Powers and
thus starve them.
(iv) The USA’s entry into the war upset
the balance of power and thus led
to German defeat.
(v) The 1918 mutinies in the German
army weakened German resistance.
(vi)The Central Powers were
surrounded by allied countries as
they all lay in the centre of Europe.
They also lacked an extensive
coastline and thus were easily
blockaded.
Reasons for Germany’s defeat
These included:
(i) The invasion of neutral Belgium
by Germany turned world opinion
against her. She was seen by many
13
12
All the peace treaties were
collectively known as the Treaty
of Versailles.
The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was a “Dictat”
that is, an imposed or dictated treaty
as Germany was not represented at
the peace conference and was forced
to accept the terms. Article 231 of the
treaty stated that:
“The Allied and Associated
Governments afrm, and Germany
accepts, the responsibility of Germany
and her allies for causing all the loss
and damage to which the Allied and
Associated Governments and their
nationals have been subjected to as a
consequence of the war imposed upon
them by the aggression of Germany
and her Allies.”
The main terms of the Treaty of
Versaillies
1. Germany lost substantial territory
in Europe. She lost Alsace and
Lorraine to France, Eupen and
Malmedy to Belgium, Northern
Schleswig to Denmark, and the
Polish Corridor and Upper Silesia
to Poland. The Port of Danzig was
to be administered by the League
of Nations. The Saar Valley, with
its deposits of coal and iron, was
also placed under the League.
All in all, Germany lost about
13% of her territory in Europe.
Most of these territories contained
important economic resources for
Germany’s industry, for example:
(a) Lorraine had iron ore
(b) Upper Silesia had coal
(c) The Saar deposits of coal
(d) Alsace had several textile industries
draft resolutions for signature. The
negotiations were dominated by
Britain, France, the USA and Italy.
Russia did not participate as she had
already withdrawn from the war and
signed a peace treaty with Germany.
The key personalities at the conference
were:
(i) Lloyd George - Prime Minister of
Britain.
(ii) Georges Clemenceau - Prime
Minister of France.
(iii) Woodrow Wilson - President of
the USA.
(iv) Vittorio Orlando - Prime Minister
of Italy.
Vittorio Orlando
Woodrow Wilson
Georges Clemenceau
Lloyd George
Fig. 1.6: Clemenceau, Woodrow Wilson,
Lloyd George and Vittorio Orlando; The key
personalities in the conference.
Five treaties were signed with each of
the Central Powers. These treaties were:
(a) Treaty of Versailles with Germany
on 28
th
June 1919.
(b) Treaty of St. Germaine with Austria
(10
th
September 1919).
(c) Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria on
27
th
November 1919.
(d) Treaty of Trianon with Hungary
on 4
th
June 1920.
(e) Treaty of Sévres in 1920 with
Turkey.
13
12
This territorial settlement was done
for two reasons:
(i) To weaken Germany.
(ii) To strengthen her neighbours so that
they could, in future, successfully
counter German attacks.
The inhabitants of these territories
were never consulted. Many Germans
in Alsace, Lorraine and the Polish
Corridor were subjected to foreign
rule.
2. Germany lost all her overseas
territories. They were given
to Allied powers as mandated
territories of the League of Nations
as shown below:
(a) German East Africa (Tanzania)
was given to Britain
(b) German South West Africa
(Namibia) was given to South
Africa
(c) Cameroon and Togoland was
went to France
(d) Samoan Islands went to New
Zealand
(e) New Guinea and the
Solomon Islands went to
Australia
(f) Marshall, Mariana and
Caroline Islands went to
Japan
(g) Ruanda-Urundi (Rwanda
and Burundi) went to
Belgium.
3. Germany was forbidden from
uniting with Austria.
4. Germany was forced to disarm
so that she could not threaten
European peace in the future. Her
army was restricted to 100,000
men and a small navy which was
banned from using submarines.
She was banned from having an
airforce, tanks, heavy artillery and
poisonous gas.
Conscription into the army was
also banned.
5. Germany was declared guilty of
causing the war and was hence
required to pay 6,600 million
pounds, plus interest in reparations
or war damages. Much of the
interest was paid in form of coal
as the Allies intended to take a
regular share of German’s wealth
until the debt was settled. The
treaty, therefore, not only deprived
Germany of land and resources,
but also made it difcult for her
to generate any wealth.
6. The Treaties of St. Germain and
Trianon, signed with the former
Austro-Hungarian Empire,
provided for the disintegration
of the empire and thus Austria
and Hungary became separate
states. New independent states
were also created, for example,
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
The state of Yugoslavia was created
from former Serbia, Montenegro,
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
7.
The Treaty of Neuilly signed
with Bulgaria, led to loss of her
territory to Greece.
8.
The Treaty of Sévres with Turkey
led to loss of Syria, Palestine and
Iraq, all in the Middle East. The
treaty also provided that Britain,
France and Italy retain troops in
Turkey.
Turks were angered by the tearms
of this treaty. Laterin 1923 the
terms of the treaty were changed
and a new treaty of Lausanne was
signed.
15
14
The major aim of the Treaty of
Versailles was to bring lasting peace
to the warring nations. This peace,
however, was not realised due to the
following reasons:
(i) The settlement was too harsh on
Germany and was hence resented
by Germans. It not only humiliated
them, but it also caused them
untold suffering. Germany’s loss
of territories and resources led to
widespread poverty.
(ii) The wishes of the minorities were
not adequately considered and the
principle of self-determination was
ignored. Thus, for example, the
Germans in both Alsace, Lorraine
and in the Polish Corridor came
under foreign rule. Three million
Germans were also placed in the
new nation of Czechoslovakia and
others in Poland.
(iii)Italy which was considered to
be a major power did not gain
from the settlement and therefore
the Italian delegation walked
out of the conference. After the
war Mussolini determined to
make territorial gains for Italy at
whatever cost.
15
14
Fig.1.7: Europe after World War I.
SPAIN
FRANCE
ITALY
Sweden
POLAND
FINLAND
NORWAY
ROMANIA
BULGARIA
GREECE
G R E A T
AUSTRIA
HUNGARY
PORTUGAL
LATVIA
IRELAND
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
LITHUANIA
ESTONIA
BELGIUM
SWITZ.
NETH.
DENMARK
Rome
Kiev
Prague
Vienna
Sofia
Madrid
London
Warsaw
Dublin
Mosow
Athens
Belgrade
Budapest
Helsinki
Bucharest
Stockholm
LUXEMBURG
POLISH
CORRIDOR
0 410 820 1,230205
Kilometers
B R I T A I N
Berlin
GERMANY
SAAR
ALSACE.
LORRAINE
A F R I C A
TRENTINO
(S. TYROL)
Trieste
ALBANIA
ISTRIA
Fiume
THRACE
Istanbul
TURKEY
B
E
S
S
A
R
A
B
I
A
BUKOVINA
TRANSYLVANIA
UPPER
SILESIA
Danzig
MEMEL
GERMANY
S O V I E T
U N I O N
Leningrad
N. SCHLESWIG
Paris
N O R T H
S E A
B A L T I C S E A
A T L A N T I C O C E A N
M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A
B L A C K S E A
T erritories lost by peace treaties
From Germany
From Bulgaria
From Rusia
From Austria
Europe after World War I
New Nations:
Finland
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania (restored)
Czechoslovakia
Poland (restored)
Yugoslavia
SP AIN
FRANCE
IT AL Y
Sweden
POLAND
FINLAND
NOR W A Y
ROMANIA
BULGARIA
GREECE
G R E A T
AUSTRIA
HUNGAR Y
POR TUGAL
LA TVIA
IR ELAND
C ZE C H O S L O V A K IA
LITHUANIA
EST ONIA
BEL G IU M
SWITZ.
NETH.
DENMARK
Rome
Kiev
Prague
V ienna
Sofia
Madrid
London
W arsaw
Dublin
Mosow
Athens
Belgrade
Budapest
Helsinki
Bucharest
Stockholm
LUXEMBURG
POLISH
CORRIDOR
0 410 820 1,230 205
Kilometers
B R I T A I N
Berlin
GERMANY
SAAR
ALSACE.
LORRAINE
A F R I C A
TRENTINO
(S. TYROL)
T rieste
ALBANIA
ISTRIA
Fiume
TH R A CE
Istanbul
T U RKE Y
B
E
S
S
A
R
A
B
I
A
BUKOVINA
TRANSYL V ANIA
UPPER
SILESIA
Danzig
MEMEL
GERMANY
S O V I E T
U N I O N
Leningrad
N. SCHLESWIG
Paris
N O R T H
S E A
B A L T I C S E A
A T L A N T I C O C E A N
M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A
B L A C K S E A
Territories lost by peace treaties
From Germany
From Bulgaria
From Rusia
From Austria
Eur ope after W orld W ar I
New Nations:
Finland
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania (restored)
Czechoslovakia
Poland (restored)
Y ugoslavia
17
16
Results of World War I
(i) The war led to loss of life. It is
estimated that over 20 million
people died during the war,
millions of women were widowed
and many children orphaned.
Civilian deaths resulted from
starvation and diseases such as
Spanish Inuenza.
(ii) The war led to the destruction of
infrastructure, for example, roads
and railways. Homes, towns and
even farmlands were destroyed,
leading to starvation and a refugee
problem in Europe.
(iii) Huge sums of money were used
during the war to purchase arms
and ammunition, transport troops
and war equipment and for
medical care. This led to the
procurement of huge loans by the
affected countries. The economies
of these countries were adversely
affected.
(iv) It slowed down the pace of
industrialisation because of lack
of manpower and raw materials.
(v) The war caused insecurity which
had the adverse effect of slowing
economic activities such as trade
and agriculture.
(vi) It undermined the existence of the
“Greater” Turkey as she lost all her
possessions in the Middle East.
(vii)
The USA’s entry into the war on
the side of the Allies and their
subsequent victory affected the
balance of power in world affairs.
After the war, many European
nations turned to the USA for
financial assistance in order to
reconstruct their economies. This
enabled her to dominate the post-
war European affairs.
(viii)
The war led to the creation of
new nation states in Europe, for
example, Czechoslovakia and
Yugoslavia.
(ix) It led to the disintegration of the
Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman
Empires.
(x) The cost of the war in monetary
terms was enormous. The total
direct cost was about US$ 180.5
billion, while the indirect cost was
about US$ 151.6 billion.
(xi) The League of Nations was
founded to create international
cooperation and preserve peace
in the world.
The League of Nations
Formation
The League of Nations was an
international organisation which was
established after World War I as an
instrument of monitoring peace and
security in the world.
In 1919, during the Paris P eace
C onference, President Woodrow
Wilson of the USA presented the
Fourteen Points which were essential
for the maintenance of world peace
after the war. The last of these points
provided for the formation of a general
association of nations to promote
world peace and to guarantee “political
independence and territorial integrity to
the great and small states alike”.
Its constitution was adopted by the
Paris Peace Conference in April
1919. Switzerland was chosen as the
headquarters of the League of Nations.
Switzerland was chosen because she
was non-aggressive and had adopted
a neutral position in world affairs.
At its formation, membership was
confined to the Allies and their
17
16
associates, but a provision was made
for other states to join later. In 1920,
when the rst meeting of the League
took place, 42 nations had joined the
world body. By 1923, a total of 54
nations had joined the Leque.
The Covenant of the League
The covenant of the League was
an agreement that laid down the
rules of the organisation. It was the
L eague’s written constitution and
was accepted by the Paris Peace
Conference in 1919. The covenant spelt
out the composition, organisation and
functions of the League. The covenant
emphasised, on the need for peaceful
settlement of disputes and respect
for the sovereignty of other states.
Member states agreed to submit their
disputes for arbitration. It was further
agreed that nancial and economic
sanctions or military action would
be used against a nation that was
aggressive and thus a threat to world
peace and security. Member states also
agreed to reduce their military build
ups and a Disarmament Commission
was set up to advise the S ecurity
Council on the issue.
The members also undertook to
cooperate on matters pertaining to
the social welfare of humanity. It was
further agreed that the administration
of the territories lost by the Central
Powers as a result of the Treaty of
Versailles would be supervised by
selected powers on behalf of the
League. Members also agreed to make
public all treaties.
Fig.1.8: The League of Nations Buildings at
Geneva, Switzerland.
Organisation of the League of
Nations
The League of Nations consisted of the
following organs:
(a) The Assembly
(b) The Council
(c) The Secretariat
(d) The Permanent Court of
International Justice
(e) International Labour
Organisation (ILO)
(f) Specialised Commissions and
Committees
a) The Assembly
The Assembly was the League’s
parliament. It was made up of
representatives of all member
states and each state had one vote.
The assembly met once a year.
The Assembly had the following
functions:
1. Controlled the budget of the League.
2. Admitted of new members to the
League.
3. Appointed the non-permanent
members to the Council.
4. Recommended action to treaties
5. Recommended action to the
League’s Council.
19
18
6. Appointed judges of the Permanent
Court of International Justice.
b) The Council
The Council comprised of
five permanent and four non-
permanent members. The
permanent members were,
Britain, France, USA, Italy and
Japan. The four non-permanent
members were elected after every
three years by the Assembly and
the number continued to rise. In
1922, the number rose to six, nine
in 1926 and eleven in 1936. The
USA, however did not join the
League as the cogress refused to
ratify its charter.
The Council had the following
functions:
1. Appointed and supervised
committees and commissions of
the League.
2. Implemented actions proposed by
the League.
3. Appointed the secretary general of
the League.
4. Prepared the agenda for the
Assembly meetings.
5. Dealt with issues affecting
international peace.
c) The Secretariat
The Secretariat was the League’s
civil service and was headed by a
Secretary General. It dealt with day
to day operations of the League, for
example, correspondence.
The rst Secretary General was
Sir Eric Drummond of Britain.
Functions of the Secretariat included:
1. Preparing the agenda for the
Assembly and Council meetings.
2. Carrying out correspondence
relating to the League.
3. Publishing relevant reports.
4. Carrying out research.
5. Implementing decisions of the
League.
6. Keeping records for the League.
7. In charge of the day to day running
of the League.
(d) The International Court of
Justice
It was located at Hague in Netherlands.
It was made up of eleven judges and
four deputy judges.
Its functions were:
1. Interpretation of treaties made
between nations.
2. Settling disputes peacefully
among member states.
3. Providing advice to the
Assembly and the Council.
(e) International Labour
Organisation (ILO)
The International Labour
Organisation was set up to protect
the interests of workers all over
the world. It aimed at securing
and maintaining decent working
conditions for all workers, and
persuading world governments to
accept agreements on such matters
as the freedom of workers to form
trade unions, and the provision
of insurance against sickness. Its
function, however, was advisory
and could therefore not force
governments to follow its advise.
(f) Specialised Commissions and
Committees
Apart from solving disputes, the L.N
also tackled other major problems.
This was done through agencies,
commissions or committees.
The following are examples of some
of the League’s commissions and
committees:
19
18
(i) The Mandates Commission
The Mandates Commission
was charged with overseeing
the administration of mandated
territories. These were territories
that the Allies acquired from the
defeated Central Powers. The
territories were placed under
the supervision of the League of
Nations.
(ii) Minorities Committee
The role of the Minorities
Committee was to protect the rights
of the minority groups against
abuse by majority groups in the
member states.
Performance of the League of
Nations
Despite several problems it
encountered in maintaining peace
and security in the world. It had many
successes including the following:
(i) It managed to preserve world
peace by encouraging member
states to settle disputes through
the International Court of Justice
in the Hague, Netherlands.
(ii) It efciently administered areas
that were put under international
control, for example, Danzig and
the Saar valley.
(iii) It supervised mandated
territories through the Mandate
Commission.
(iv) It successfully settled disputes
between member states through
the International Court of Justice.
For example, it settled disputes
in the following areas:
(a) Sweden and Finland over the
Aaland Islands.
(b) Turkey and Iraq over the Mosul
area.
(c) Germany and Poland over Upper
Silesia.
(v) It successfully brought to an end
a war that broke out between
Greece and Bulgaria in 1921.
(vi) Through one of its agencies, the
International Health Organisation
(IHO), it helped to combat
epidemics of diseases such as
typhoid, smallpox and cholera in
Eastern Europe in 1920’s.
(vii) The welfare of the workers
was improved and practices
such as child labour were
abolished after the establishment
of the International Labour
Organisation.
(viii)
It assisted Austria, Hungary
and Bulgaria which were in a
state of economic collapse at the
end of the war using the money
raised from member states of the
League.
(ix) It prohibited and reduced trade
in dangerous drugs such as
opium.
(x) It helped in the regulation of
private manufacture of arms and
their sale, and held disarmament
conferences. This led to reduced
access to arms.
(xi) It supervised the repatriation of
400,000 prisoners of war from 26
nations.
(xii) It assisted in caring for refugees
by deploying them in restricted
areas where they were given
housing and food.
(xiii)
It facilitated the bringing together
of scholars and scientists from
different countries, through its
commission on intellectual co-
operation. This helped in the
exchange of knowledge. The
commission also encouraged
students and teachers’ exchange
programmes.
21
20
Failures of the League of
Nations
The following are the reasons for the
failure of the League of Nations:
(i) Some member states refused
to submit their disputes to the
International Court of Justice for
arbitration. The increased tension
between them weakened their
performance as members of the
League.
(ii) The League’s domination by the
victorious powers (Allies) during
World War I led to its failure
because these powers inuenced
all major decisions of the League.
The decisions of the League were
therefore not supported by the
majority.
(iii) The USA’s refusal to join the
League from the very beginning
weakened it. The USA congress
refused to officially sign the
Treaty of Versailles in March 1920.
Ratification of treaties and
international agreements required
approval by at least two-thirds of
the congress. The Republicans had
gained control of both the Senate
and the House of Representatives
in the elections of 1918. The
S enators opposed Woodrow
Wilson, because they wanted the
USA to keep off European affairs
in line with the Monroe Doctrine
of 1823.
(iv) Lack of commitment. Member
states tended to withdraw from
the League whenever they did
not agree with its policies. For
example, Japan and Italy left
the League when they were
condemned for their invasion of
other states. Japan had invaded
Manchuria while Italy invaded
Ethiopia.
(v) The League lacked machinery to
enforce decisions, for example,
it had no army to help in ghting
enemies of member states. Moral
condemnation, diplomatic and
economic sanctions were not
effective.
(vi) The League’s adoption of the
policy of “appeasement” as a way
of avoiding war led to its collapse
and war broke out.
(vii)
The covenant of the League did
not forbid war.
The Second World War
(1939-1945)
After World War I, world powers
made great efforts to guard against
the occurrence of another war. They
formed the League of Nations in 1919
and signed several treaties in the
1920’s in order to strengthen cordial
international relations. Relations
between these nations improved and
Germany was admitted to the League
of Nations in 1926. This situation,
however, was short lived.
The 1930’s witnessed the rise of dictators
in Western Europe. These were; Adolf
Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini
of Italy and General Francisco Franco
of Spain.
They intentionally deed international
opinion, disregarded the League of
Nations and violated the Treaty of
Versailles. Their activities and those
of Japan began to interfere with the
prevailing peace in the world. The
USA had already retreated to isolation
and thus the task of maintaining world
peace was left entirely to Britain and
France. Unfortunately both powers
21
20
did little to prevent aggression and
stop further violations the Versailles
Treaty. Sir Winston Churchill, Prime
Minister of Britain during the war,
later remarked that the Second World
War was an “unnecessary” war. He
felt that if there was a concerted effort
by the world powers then to stop
aggression prior to 1938, then the war
would have been avoided.
Fig. 1.9: Sir Winston Churchill; felt Second
World War was uncalled for.
The Second World War (WWII) was a
total war, involving most countries in
the world and the maximum utilisation
of their resources. Millions of people,
men and women were conscripted
for service in both the military and in
war related industries. Civilians were,
more than ever before, exposed to the
dangers of modern warfare through
the use sophisticated weapons and
aerial bombardment. It was a war
fought on land, in the air and at sea.
Causes of the war
The causes of the Second World War
were as follows:
(i) The Great Economic Depression,
1929-1931
It occurred between 1929-1931
because of slow economic
growth of many countries due
to devastating effect of the First
World War. It was characterised
by increased unemployment,
reduction of industrial production,
low wages, hunger and social
discomfort. Many nations such
as Japan, Italy and Germany were
unable to compete favourable
with nations such as Britain and
France. Central powers started
aggression and searching for
colonies since they felt that, the
allied nations were unfairly
controlling the world’s wealth.
(ii) Weaknesses of the League of
Nations
The 1920’s were years of alot of
success for the League of Nations.
A number of international disputes
were settled and treaties of
international co-operation signed
between European powers. In the
1930’s, however, the League was
faced with problems which became
difcult to solve.
In 1931, for example, Japan
annexed Manchuria from China
and established the state of
Manchukuo.
The League succeeded only in
requesting Japan to withdraw from
some, but not all parts of Manchuria.
Japan’s action not only humiliated
the League but also contributed to its
decline, as it encouraged other powers
to intensify aggression and violate
resolutions of the League.
Italy invaded Abbysin Ethiopia in 1935,
and though the League condemned the
aggression, it failed to apply effective
economic sanctions against her.
The League also failed to prevent
23
22
Germany’s growing militarism and
re-armament after World War I.
(iii)
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles imposed
harsh conditions on Germany.
She was declared guilt of
causing the war and therefore
Fig. 1.10: Japanese expansionism in the 1930’s.
’
1931-1932
1935-1936
KEY
Chinese Eastern Railway
Tr
a
n
s
-
S
i
b
e
r
ia
n
R
a
i
l
w
a
y
South
Manchurian
Railway
CHINA
U S S R
HOPEH
MANCHURIA
OUTER MONGOLIA
JAPAN
KOREA
JEHOL
CHAHAR
FRENCH
INDO
CHINA
HAINAN
FORMOSA
KIAO CHOW
(surrendered
by Japan, 1922)
Tokyo
Mukden
Cantor
Peking
Nanking
Shanghai
Hong Kong
Port Arthur
Vladivostok
Chungking
(Centre of
Chinese resistance)
To Japan, 1895
To Japan,
1910
The origins of the Second W orld W ar: Japanese expensionism
in the 1930s
LEGEND
Manchuria (Manchukuo), conquered 1931-2
Limits of Japanese conquests after 1937
Jehol, conquered 1933
Japanese Empire, 1920s
Chahar and Hopeh, influence extended c. 1935-6
50 0 5025 Kilometers
23
22
punished in several ways. She
lost her European and all colonial
possessions. She was also forced
to disarm and pay reparations to
the Allies.
These conditions brought untold
suffering in Germany. There was
widespread unemployment,
inflation and shortages of food
and raw materials. Hitler therefore
resolved to pursue an aggressive
policy in order to restore Germany
to her former glory.
(iv)
Hitler’s Aggression
He started by violating a number of
the terms of the treaty of versailles:
i) In 1933 he organised for
Germainy’s withdrawal
from the League of Nations
constription.
ii) Reintroduced conscription into
the army remilitarisation.
iii) Re-armed
iv) Occupation of Rhine land
He blamed Germany’s woes on the
unfair Treaty of Versailles, whose
terms were harsh and wished to
restore Germany’s dominance in
Europe. This, he believed, could
only be achieved if certain terms
of the Versailles Treaty violated.
On assuming power, he began to
look for opportunities to realise this
objective.
In 1933, Hitler withdrew Germany
from the membership of the League
of Nations and embarked on
a programme of re-armament.
Withdrawal from the League
ensured that Germany would
no longer be bound by the treaty
restrictions. Hitler declared his
intention to re-militarise Germany
in deance of the Treaty of Versailles
in 1935. He also announced the
re-introduction of conscription and
established a strong airforce and a
navy.
European powers especially
Britain and France did not condemn
these acts, and so, undeterred,
Hitler embarked on a programme
to re-assert German authority over
the smaller and weaker states of
Europe.
(v) Appeasement
This was a policy that Britain and
France adopted during the 1930’s
to govern their relations with other
powers, particularly Germany. It
was a policy whereby both powers
made concessions to aggressive
powers in order to avoid conict
and war. A number of factors led to
the adoption of this policy. These
were;
(a) Sympathy for Germany because
of the harsh terms of the Treaty
of Versailles saw both powers
allowing Hitler to get away with
some of his demands.
(b) They hoped that Hitler will be
appeased once Germany’s main
grievances were met.
(c) The memories of World War I were
still fresh and any form of conict
in Europe had to be avoided at
whatever cost.
(d) Hostility towards communism in
both Britain and France Hitler’s
anti-communist views won him
support in both countries because
it was felt he would stop the spread
of communism from Russia to the
western European countries.
(vi) The Spanish C ivil W ar (1936-1939)
25
24
Franco received military assistance
from both Hitler and Mussolini,
the two main dictators of the
time. His forces won and he was
restored to power, a violation of
the resolutions of the League of
Nations and therefore a threat to
world peace. The involvement of
Germany in the Spanish Civil W ar
enabled Franco to win the war. The
German armed forces were also
able to test their new weapons. The
war also provided them with an
opportunity to practise war tactics
such as bombing civilian targets
from the air.
(vii) Formation of Alliances
Western European countries started
forming alliances that created mistrust
and suspicion. Hitler formed a
defensive pact with Mussolini called
the Berlin-Rome Axis in 1936. In 1939,
Japan joined this arrangement and it
became the Berlin, Rome and Tokyo
axis. This alliance intensied acts of
aggression causing fear of outbreak
of another war.
(viii) Emergency of Dictators in Europe
The First World War brought about
rise of dictators in Europe such as
Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito
Mussolini of Italy, Joseph Stalin of
Russia and General Franco of Spain.
The aggression activities of dictators
fear, tension and suspicion threating
world peace and security.
Neville Chamberlain
Edouard Daladier
Adolf Hitler
Benito Mussolini
Fig. 1.12: Neville Chamberlain, Edouard
Daladier, Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini;
leaders who signed the Munich Agreement.
The Allies virtually accepted all of
Hitler’s demands. Sudetenland was
thus incorporated into Germany
and within days the German army
occupied it. The British Prime Minister
during World War II, Sir Winston
Churchill was later to refer to the
Munich Agreement as, “a defeat without
a war”. He further remarked that
“retreats do not win wars”, and thus the
need for the Allies to have taken a rm
stand against Hitler.
In March 1939, German troops occupied
the whole of Czechoslovakia. By now it
had become clear to Britain and France
that Hitler could not be appeased
and thus war was inevitable. Britain
therefore began to re-arm.
25
24
(x) The Nazi Soviet Pact
Hitler’s next ambition was to
regain the Polish Corridor, an
area occupied by many German
speaking people which she lost at
Versailles. He also wanted to regain
Danzig, an important port that had
been placed under the control of the
League of Nations.
In August 1939, Hitler negotiated
a ten-year pact with the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
This called the Nazi-Soviet By
this agreement, the USSR pledged
to remain neutral if a war broke
out between Germany and Poland.
In a separate secret clause, both
powers agreed to divide Poland
between themselves. This pact
made reduced Hitler’s fears of a
war on two fronts. It cleared the
way for Hitler to invade Poland.
When Poland refused to surrender
the Polish C orridor, Germany
launched a full scale attack on her
frontiers. Germany’s refusal to
withdraw her forces from Poland
led to a declaration of war against
her by Britain and France on
3
rd
September 1939. The S econd
World War had begun!
Fig. 1.11: NAZI Germany on the eve of the war.
KEY
27
26
The Course of the War
The invasion of Poland by German
forces and the subsequent declaration
of war against Germany by Britain
and France marked the beginning of
the Second World War. The Germans
used ‘blitzkrieg’ (lightning war tactics)
and this enabled them to overrun
Poland within a period of one month.
The Polish cavalry were no match
to Germany’s aeroplanes and tanks.
While German bombers attacked
from the air to destroy the transport
and communication network as well
as major urban centres, the ground
troops moved fast to secure strategic
places. They used tanks, lorries and
even motorbikes. This strategy was
referred to as the ‘blitzkrieg’ tactics.
Meanwhile, on 17
th
September 1939
the USSR attacked Poland from
the east, as per the secret clause
in the Nazi-Soviet pact of August
1939. The eastern parts of Poland, as
well as the Baltic States of Estonia,
Latvia and Lithuania were taken. The
conquest of Poland was completed
on 27
th
September 1939 and Poland
was subsequently divided between
Germany and the USSR. Estonia,
Latvia and Lithuania were restored
back to the USSR. Finland was also
conquered and forced to hand over
some territories to the USSR.
The Polish people suffered a lot during
the German occupation of Poland.
Thousands of Jewish people were
exterminated and so were the Poles
who were opposed to German rule.
It is estimated that Poland lost about
one-fth of its population during the
war.
The Phoney War
Although Britain and France had
declared war against Germany on 3
rd
September 1939, no major military
operations were undertaken on the
western front for the next eight
months, hence the term phoney war
or articial war. Both countries were
not prepared for an offensive against
Germany and were thus mobilising
their forces and re-arming. Hitler on
the other hand did not want to be
involved in a war in the west since his
armies had not fully recovered from
their conquest in the east.
Invasion of Denmark and
Norway
In April 1940, Hitler attacked Denmark
and Norway. He launched a sea-borne
invasion against Norway on 9
th
April
1940. The attack on Norway was
motivated by a desire to get iron ore
for Germany’s ammunition industry.
Hitler also wanted to use the two
countries as bases for launching both
naval and air attacks against France.
Norway resisted but was conquered.
Denmark gave in without a resistance.
It is worth noting that these invasions
were carried out inspite of the fact that
both countries had already pledged
neutrality in European affairs.
The Prime Minister of Norway and his
ministers ed to London and Hitler
established a puppet government
in the country. In Britain, Neville
Chamberlain was forced to resign as
Prime Minister. He was replaced by
Sir Winston Churchill.
27
26
The Fall of France
The French, like their British allies had
assumed that World War II would be
fought just like World War I, that is in
terms of building strong defences. Their
major defence against the Germans
was the Maginot Line which stretched
from the Swiss to the Belgian border.
It was a system of fortications, built
of concrete and reinforced with heavy
artillery and other weapons. After
the remilitarisation of the Rhineland
in 1936, the Germans also built their
system of fortications, the Siegfried
Line, which ran parallel to the Maginot
Line.
In May 1940, Germany launched
attacks on Holland, Belgium and
Luxembourg and soon they all
surrendered. German forces then
entered France through Belgium as
they had done during World War
I. Their use of the blitzkrieg tactics
overwhelmed the British and French
forces and on 14
th
June, the Germans
entered Paris. France surrendered on
June 20
th
1940.
The French government had already
retreated southwards, rst to Tours,
and then with the German advance,
to Bourdeaux, to the southwest of the
country. The French Prime Minister
resigned, and Marshall Henri-Philippe
Pétain took over.
Fig. 1.13: Maginot and Siegfried Lines.
FRANCE
GERMANY
ITALY
AUSTRIA
BELGIUM
HOLLAND
SWITZERLAND
LUXE
MBUR
G
0 50 10025 Kilometers
Maginot Line (built 1929-34)
Siegfried Line (built after
remilitarization of the
Rhineland, 1936)
The Maginot and Siegfried Lines
KEY
LUXEMBOURG
29
28
He signed an armistice with Germany
which gave Germany the right to
administer the whole of northern
France and the Atlantic coastline as
well as Alsace and Lorraine. The rest
of the country was ruled from Vichy
by Marshall Pétain, but under German
supervision. Exiled Frenchmen in
Britain led by General Charles de
Gaulle, formed the ‘Free French
Movement’ and fought with Britain
against Germany.
Meanwhile, on 10
th
June 1940, Italy
had declared war on Britain and
France. She thought that there was
very little ghting left. This was not
to be case.
The Battle of Britain
The defeat of France meant that
Germany was the dominant power in
Continental Europe. Hitler’s ambition
had been to conquer the whole of
Europe for Germany and so he began
to make preparations for war against
Britain.
In July 1940, the German (airforce),
began their bombardment of Britain’s
shipping and airelds. A number of
British planes were destroyed. The
Germans soon changed their tactics
and began to attack cities and factories,
a great mistake indeed, because they
suffered heavy losses. The British had
earlier in 1939 designed the radar
system. Through this they were able
to detect the presence of any aircraft
and even ships and thus prepare in
advance before the Germans struck.
This way, the Royal Air Force (RAF)
shot German aircraft before they could
strike.
Britain also got assistance from the
USA. The Lend-Lease Act of 1941 had
empowered the USA government to
supply Britain with ships and other
war equipment. Efforts by the USA
to reinforce Britain’s fighting force
were however frustrated by Hitler
who intensied the U-boat operations
in the Atlantic coastline. In 1941,
Germany sunk 4 million tonnes of
British shipping. In the Battle of
Britain, the Luftwaffe lost a total of
1733 aircraft as compared to the RAF’s
915. On realising that Britain could
not be conquered, Hitler called off war
against Britain.
War in the Balkans
Hitler turned his attention to the
east in August 1940. Romania and
Bulgaria were taken. In April 1941,
Yugoslavia and Greece were taken.
Crete was taken in May 1941. Pro-Nazi
governments were established in both
Romania and Bulgaria.
War in North Africa
The war in North Africa was part of
Hitler’s plan to take control of both the
Mediterranean region and the Suez
canal. The war was fought between
Italy and Germany on one hand and
Britain on the other.
In the end the Allied forces succeeded
and both areas were safeguarded. The
failure to take North Africa led to the
collapse of Mussolini’s government in
Italy. In 1943, Mussolini resigned and
was succeeded by Marshall Badoglio
who immediately opened secret peace
negotiations with the Allies.
In September 1943, Italy signed an
armistice with the Allies. Ten days
later, Germany occupied Rome. The
Allies invaded Italy and captured
Rome in June 1944.
29
28
Fig. 1.14: The greatest extent of Axis Power in Europe and Africa.
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Iran
Anglo-
Egyptian
Sudan
Algeria
Libya
Egypt
Angola
Saudi Arabia
Turkey
Sweden
Ethiopia
Greenland
Iraq
Finland
France
Nigeria
Norway
Spain
Union of
South Africa
Namibia
Kenya
Italy
Poland
Germany
Netherlands
Bechuana-
Land
Yemen
Morocco
Oman
Syria
Iceland
Romania
Mozambique
Madagascar
Belgian
Congo
Afghanistan
Yugoslavia
Tanganyika
Tunisia
Latvia
Pakistan
Bulgaria
Austria
Ireland
Greece
Hungary
Spanish
Sahara
Jordan
Portugal
Lithuania
Czechoslovakia
Liberia
Estonia
Italy
Israel
Belgium
Switzerland
United Arab Emirates
Albania
Kuwait
Qatar
United Kingdom
Cyprus
Lebanon
Denmark
French
Equatorial
Africa
Luxembourg
40 0'0"W
30 0'0"W
30 0'0"W
20 0'0"W
20 0'0"W
10 0'0"W
10 0'0"W
0 0'0"
0 0'0" 10 0'0"E
10 0'0"E
20 0'0"E
20 0'0"E
30 0'0"E
30 0'0"E
40 0'0"E
40 0'0"E
50 0'0"E
50 0'0"E
60 0'0"E
60 0'0"E
70 0'0"E 80 0'0"E
40 0'0"S
40 0'0"S
30 0'0"S
30 0'0"S
20 0'0"S
20 0'0"S
10 0'0"S
10 0'0"S
0 0'0" 0 0'0"
10 0'0"N
10 0'0"N
20 0'0"N
20 0'0"N
30 0'0"N
30 0'0"N
40 0'0"N
40 0'0"N
50 0'0"N
50 0'0"N
60 0'0"N
60 0'0"N
70 0'0"N
70 0'0"N
Eritrea
Fr. Somali
Br. Somali
Italian
Somaliland
French West Africa
Gold Coast
Rhodesia
World War II
The greatest extent
of Axis power in
Europe and Africa
Boundaries as of Sept. 1, 1939
Axis powers
Maximum area of Axis control
( British Somaliland liberated in Mar. 1941)
A T L A N T I C O C E A N
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
I N D I A N O C E A N
The invasion of the USSR
(Operation Barbarossa)
On 2
nd
June 1941, Hitler invaded the
USSR, and using blitzkrieg tactics,
advanced with amazing speed.
The invasion caught Josef Stalin
unprepared, hence Soviet troops were
forced to retreat and a large number
taken prisoners. Hitler however failed
to capture Moscow before the onset
of the winter season. The German
progress was checked by the Red
31
30
War with Japan
Early in 1941, Japan, a member of the
Axis Powers, organised aggressive
campaigns against the Allies in South
East Asia. In July she moved into
Indo-China, a move that was seen
as a threat to British interests in
Malaysia, the Dutch in the East Indies,
and the United States of America in
the Philippines. The three countries
declared an embargo on trade with
Japan.
The USA went a step further by closing
the Panama Canal to Japanese ships.
While negotiations on these and other
regional problems were going on, Japan
organised an unexpected aerial attack
on an American naval base at Pearl
Harbour, Hawaii. In the confusion that
followed, the USA suffered more than
5,000 casualties and lost ve battleships,
three cruisers as well as 177 airplanes
which were destroyed on the ground.
This attack effectively brought the USA
into the war. On 8
th
December 1941,
the USA, Britain and the Netherlands
declared war on Japan while Germany
and Italy declared war on the USA.
In the encounters that followed, the
Japanese used war tactics that were
similar to Hitler’s and hence triumphed
over the Allies. In December 1941,
for example, Japan sank two British
battleships, the Repulse and the Prince
of Wales. She went on to capture Hong
Kong, Malaya, Burma, the Dutch East
Indies, Vietnam, the Philippines and
the British naval base at Singapore.
In May 1942, however, Japanese
invasions met strong Allied counter
offensives and soon she lost all the
territories she had acquired. The
USA, Britain and China issued a
declaration from Potsdam where
an allied conference was being held
in July 1945. Japan was asked to
surrender unconditionally or face
destruction. She, however, held on
even after Germany surrendered.
Emperor Hirohito wanted to negotiate
peace but his generals did not, and so
in light of this, the Allies decided to
drop the newly tested atomic bomb.
On 6
th
August 1945, a bomber
aeroplane, Enola Gay, commanded
by Colonel Paul Tibbets, ew over
Hiroshima with an atomic bomb
which weighed 4535.15kgs. Soon a
ball of re with a temperature of 55.56
million°C at its centre spread across
the landscape. This intense heat
was followed by a wind moving at
800 km/h. The wind uprooted trees,
attened buildings and caused a rain
of ying glass which tore people into
shreds. About 78,000 people died
while many others were maimed.
Three days later, on 9
th
August,
a second bomb was dropped at
Nagasaki. The Japanese surrendered
unconditionally a few days later. The
Second World War was over.
31
30
Results of World War II
The following were the results of the
Second World war:
(i) Many lives were lost. It is estimated
that more than 30 million people
died, soldiers and civilians alike.
While soldiers died in battles,
prisoners of war or hostages in
occupied territories, civilians died
during bombings.
(ii) The use of the atomic bomb
during the war adversely affected
the lives of many people. The
bombs released radio-active
substances which caused a
variety of ailments, for example,
disguration and cancer.
(iii) The lifespan of many people was
shortened due to the effects of the
poisonous gases used and due
to the torture they got while in
foreign countries.
(iv) Homes, factories, farms, schools,
hospitals and transport systems
were destroyed. This adversely
affected the economies of the
warring nations as huge sums
of money was needed for the
reconstruction. This led to setting
up of the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) and a W orld B ank to
provide loans for reconstruction.
(v) The war created psychological and
emotional problems to individuals
and nations as a whole.
(vi)The war disrupted agriculture
and industry. They almost came
to a standstill due to lack of
equipment, raw materials and
human resources. External trade
also almost stopped.
(vii)
There was inadequate shelter,
food and clothing for the many
displaced and homeless people.
Europe alone had a total of 21
million displaced people.
(viii)
The return of demobilised
service men and women as well as
prisoners of war increased pressure
on the labour market leading to
massive unemployment.
(ix) USA and USSR emerged as the
new super powers.
(x) The war led to the division of
Germany into two; capitalist West
Germany and communist East
Germany.
(xi) The communist zone was
extended to include nearly half
the continent of Europe.
(xii) The division of Europe into
two opposing ‘blocs’ led to the
C old W ar. The Cold War was
accompanied by an arms race
between the USA and the USSR
both of which stock-piled nuclear
weapons.
(xiii)
Since the USSR dominated Eastern
Europe and a large part of Asia,
the USA gave assistance to the
weakened western powers to
prevent them from falling into
communist hands. This aid came
in the form of the ‘Marshall Plan’
in which about US$ 7,000 million
was disbursed.
33
32
Army with the assistance of workers’
battalions from the factories and the
whole population as they were unable
to ght in the cold winter.
The Germans resumed their offensive
in the spring of 1942. They were nally
defeated at the Battle of Stalingrad
on 31
st
January 1943. By May 1944,
the Russians had pushed them from
their territory and were approaching
Germany itself.
The following factors contributed to
Germany’s defeat during the invasion
of USSR.
(a) The German army was ghting
in several fronts at the same time
as compared to other armies. The
army was ghting in Italy, Africa
and later in France in 1944. This
lack of concentration in one area
allowed the other armies to defeat
them.
(b) The Soviet forces employed
the ‘scorched earth policy’ of
destroying everything as their
army retreated. This left little to
the Germans.
(c) The Germans ill-treated the
Soviet people and exploited their
economic resources. This caused
resentment and the Soviet people
united in their determination to
defeat Germany.
(d) Weak leadership by the German
military leaders contributed to
their defeat.
The defeat of Germany
Up to 1942, Hitler’s forces had made
major success, both on the western
and eastern front. Only two countries
had remained unconquered, that is,
Britain and the USSR.
After 1942, the tide began to turn
against Germany.
In the years that followed, German
armies were defeated by Allied forces
in North Africa, Italy and France. The
Anglo-American invasion of France
in June 1944 had taken the Germans by
surprise and soon they were pushed
to their frontiers. By March 1945,
Allied forces had crossed the Rhine.
The USSR in the meantime attacked
from the east. On realising imminent
defeat, Hitler accepted defeat and
handed over power to one of his
military generals. He then retreated
to an underground bunker in Berlin.
On 29
th
April 1945, Hitler married his
long term mistress Eva Braun, and on
the following day committed suicide.
Hitler shot himself while Eva Braun
took poison. Germany surrendered
unconditionally on 7
th
May 1945.
Several factors contributed to the
defeat of Germany: They include:
(a) Germany had acquired far too
many territories and she was
unable to effectively control them.
(b) The USSR recovered from her
losses and began to rearm in a bid
to ght against Germany.
(c) In December 1941, the USA entered
the war against the Axis Powers.
Her entry into the war contributed
to Germany’s eventual defeat.
(d) The Allies attracted more support
than the Axis Powers. The Axis
Powers were only four, that is,
Germany, Bulgaria, Romania and
Japan. Though Italy had initially
fought on the side of the Axis
Powers, she was soon forced to
surrender.
33
32
Fig.1.16: The extent of the Axis Powers in Asia and the Pacic in World War II.
ISLANDS
LEYTE
S O V I E T U N I O N
Tokyo
Manila
Canton
Peking
Nanking
Shanghai
Calcutta
Singapore
Hong kong
Vladivostok
PHILIPPINE
NO. BORNEO
SARAWAK
I N D I A
BURMA
SIAM
FRENCH
INDO-CHINA
MALAY
STATE
SUMATRA
JAVA
MANCHURIA
I N D I A N
O C E A N
AUSTRALIA
KOREA
KURILE
ISLANDS
J A P A N
OKINAWA
FORMOSA
GUAM
MARIANA
ISLAND
CAROLINE ISLANDS
MARSHAL
ISLAND
GILBERT
ISLANDS
SOLOMON
ISLANDS
CORAL
SEA
FIJIS
SAMOA
NETH. EAST INDIES
BORNEO
NEW
GUINEA
GUADALCANAL
MIDWAY
Pearl
Harbor
HAWAIIAN
ISLANDS
ATTU
KISKA
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
ALASKA
P A C I F I C
O C E A N
W orld W ar II
The gr eatest extent of Axis power
Asia and the Pacific
Boundaries as of Dec. 7, 1941
Japan
Maximum area of
Japanese contr
C H I N A
Pearl
Harbour
PB
34
(xiv)
World War II destroyed the myth
of European military superiority.
African nationalism was
strengthed as they realised that
their colonial masters were not
as superior as they had thought.
(xv) The war demonstrated the
weakness and inability of the
League of Nations in the
maintenance of world peace and
the prevention of the occurrence of
another World War. World powers
therefore resolved to establish a
more efcient organisation which
would guarantee world peace.
They established the United
Nations Organisation (UN) in 1945.
(xvi) The war raised the status of
women who started participating
in decision making and taking up
jobs previously reserved for men.
The war led to the formation of the
United Nations Organisation. After
the failure of the League of Nations to
safeguard world peace, world powers
resolved that there was need for
another body which would guarantee
world peace.
Activities
1. Organise a class discussion on how the Alliance System contributed to the
outbreak of World War I.
2. Dramatise the Paris Peace Conference highlighting the major decisions
reached.
3. Hold a group discussion and have a presentation on the contribution of
Hitler towards the outbreak of World War II.
4. (a) Observe a lm on World War II.
(b) Prepare a report on the effects of World War II on humanity.
Exercise
1. What were the causes of the First World War?
2. Give the reasons for USA’s neutrality in the war until 1917.
3. Outline the main terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
4. What were the results of World War I?
5. Analyse the performance of the League of Nations.
6. Discuss the causes of World War II.
7. What factors contributed to Germany’s defeat during World War II?
8. Discuss the factors that contributed to Allied success during World War II.
35
PB
International relations refer to
interactions between sovereign states
or nations. They may involve nations
in the same region and across regions
and continents. The relations may be
political, economic, social or cultural
in nature.
The need for nations to interrelate is of
paramount importance in the modern
world, as no nation can exist
independently. Interrelationships
between nations not only help in
bringing the peoples of the world
together, but also promote peace and
security in the world. The events
taking place in one nation affect
people living in distant lands.
The failure to interrelate may
sometimes lead to conicts and wars,
as was evidenced in both World War
I and II. Though the wars had their
origins in Europe, the whole world
ultimately became involved, directly
or indirectly. An occurrence of another
World War would certainly spell
disaster for human kind. Thus the
saying, “mankind must end war or war
will end mankind.”
International organisations
After World War I and II, a number
of regional and international
organisations were established to foster
political, economic and social relations
among nations. In this chapter we
shall examine selected international
and regional organisations.
1. The United Nations
Organisation (UN)
Formation
The United Nations Organisation
(UN) is a voluntary association of
independent or sovereign nations.
The major aim of the UN is to promote
and maintain international peace
and security, and develop friendly
relations among the nations of the
world. Membership is open to all
independent states irrespective of
their differences in political ideologies
and levels of economic development.
The failure of the League of Nations
to maintain peace and security in the
world led to the outbreak of World
War II. In the course of the war, the
need to establish a more effective
organisation was felt. Leaders of the
Allied powers and their supporters
held several conferences to discuss
the war and the type of organisation
they wanted to set up once the war
was over. The most important of these
conferences were held at Dumbarton
Oaks and San Francisco, both in the
USA, and Yalta in the USSR.
Unit
2
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
37
36
Under the Charter, the official
languages of the United Nations are
Chinese, English, French, Russian
and Spanish. Arabic has been added
as an ofcial language of the General
Assembly, the Security Council and
the Economic and Social Council.
Since 1945, membership to the UN has
continued to grow. Initially there were
certain restrictions which prevented
countries such as communist China,
East and West Germany, North and
South Korea and North and South
Vietnam from becoming members.
Countries that were still under colonial
domination also did not qualify for
membership. The USA organised the
obstruction of Communist China until
1971 when she eventually became
a member. Prior to 1971 China’s
seat in the S ecurity Council was
occupied by Taiwan due to ideological
differences between China and the
USA. Indonesia left the UN in 1965
after being criticised in the General
Assembly. However, she resumed
membership in 1966.
By 1970, membership had risen to
127 and since then more countries
have become members of the united
Nations. Kenya joined the UN on
16
th
December 1963 after attaining
independence.
In 2000, membership had risen to
189. The United Nations Millennium
Summit which was held in New
York, USA, in September 2000 was
attended by over 150 world leaders.
The headquarters of the UN are
situated in New York, USA.
The Allied powers were, instrumental
in the establishment of the UN, and
they have since continued to play a
major role in its operations.
The UN has ve permanent
members, namely:
(i) Britain
(ii) France
(iii) USA
(iv) Russia
(v) China
The UN Charter was drawn up and
signed by representatives of fifty
nations at a conference held at San
Francisco, USA, on 26th June 1945. The
Charter, unlike the Covenant of the
League of Nations, was independent
of the peace treaties that were signed
after the war. This was done to ensure
that the defeated powers would not
regard it as an instrument for further
punishment.
The UN came into existence on 24th
October 1945 when the Charter was
ratied by the leaders of the Allied
powers, that is, Britain, France USA,
China and the USSR.
Fig. 2.1: Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin; leaders
of the Allied powers who initiated discussions
on the formation of the UN.
37
36
Fig. 2.2: UN headquarters in New York.
Objectives of the UN
The UN was formed for the following
reasons:
(i) To promote and maintain
international peace and security.
(ii) To encourage co-operation in
solving international economic,
social, cultural and humanitarian
problems.
(iii)To develop friendly relations
among the nations of the world.
(iv)To continue the diplomatic
meetings that had begun during
the war.
(v) To promote respect for fundamental
human rights and freedoms.
(vi)To protect the interest of minority
groups, women and children.
Organisation
The UN is made up of six main organs
The United Nations, however, is
much larger with 15 agencies, several
programmes and bodies. Some of the
agencies are United Nations Children
Fund (UNICEF), United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP)
and United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) among others.
The General
Assembly
The Security
Council
The
Secretariat
The
International
Court of
Justice
The
Trusteeship
Council
The
Economic
and Social
Council
Organs of UN
Fig. 2.3: Organs of the UN.
Year Nations that became members of UN
1945 Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Belarus, Canada, Chile, China
(Nationalist), Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti,
Honduras, India, Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, Liberia, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands,
New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland,
Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Syria, Turkey, Ukraine, United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, USA, Uruguay, Venezuela,
Yugoslavia
Table 2.1: Membership of UN in 1945.
39
38
(a) The General Assembly
The Assembly is made up of
representatives of all member states.
Each state is allowed to send five
representatives to the plenary sessions
which are held once a year but voting
is on the basis of one state, one vote.
The Assembly is mandated to:
1. Discuss issues that fall within
the objectives of the UN, except
those matters which are under
consideration by the Security
Council. Decisions are usually
made by a two-third majority
vote. However in some issues,
a simple majority is sufficient.
Deliberations in the Assembly
are carried out in English, French,
Spanish, Chinese, Russian or
Arabic.
2. Supervise the UN as a whole and
to appoint personnel to the various
UN agencies.
3. Approve the UN budget.
4. Admit new members and expel
errant ones. Representatives of
recognised non-state organisations
such as the Palestinian Liberation
Organisation (PLO) are permitted to
attend its deliberations as observers.
They do not participate in the voting
process.
5. Elect non-permanent members
of the security council, economic
and social council and members
of trusteeship council.
6. With recommendations from
the security council appoints the
secretary general and judges of the
International court of Justice (ICJ).
(b) The Security Council
The Security Council is made up of the
ve permanent members:
(i) United Kingdom
(ii) USA
(iii) France
(iv) China
(v) Russia
These were the victorious powers
during World War II. The Council also
has ten non-permanent members who
are elected by the General Assembly
for a period of two years.
Each of the permanent members has
a veto power, that is, decisions can
not be reached unless all vote ‘yes’.
Anyone of them can reject a resolution
and thus render it null and void. The
use of the veto power undermines
the equality of nations and is used by
major powers to ensure dominance
in world affairs. The veto power
was, however, restricted in 1950 by a
“uniting for peace” resolution which
allowed the General Assembly to by-
pass the Security Council in various
ways, for example, recommending the
use of armed forces. This can only be
done in a situation where the Security
Council fails to reach a consensus on
an issue that threatens peace.
The Security Council is the permanent
decision making organ of the UN. Its
duties are to:
1. Promote and maintain international
peace and security.
2. Investigate disputes that may
threaten peace
3. Recommend the course of action
to be taken against a certain
country. This can be done in the
form of economic and diplomatic
sanctions against the offending
states, deployment of peace
keeping forces to warring nations,
as evidenced in Somalia, the
former Yugoslavia, East Timor,
Sierra Leone, Ethiopia and Eritrea.
The Security Council can also
order cease re operations between
warring nations.
39
38
Functions of the Secretariat
(i) Administer peace keeping
operations.
(ii) Carry out surveys of economic
and social trends.
(iii) Organise varoius conferences.
(iv) Carry out correspond of the
organisation.
(v) Implement policies laid down by
other organs.
(vi) Translate information into the UN
languages.
(vii) Carry out general day to day
operations.
(c) The Secretariat
The Secretariat is the chief
administrative organ of the UN and
is headed by a Secretary General.
The Secretary General is elected
by the General Assembly upon the
recommendation of the Security
Council for a term of ve years. The
Secretary General is usually elected
from among the world’s minor powers
and can be re-elected for a second or
even a third term. To date there have
been nine Secretary Generals as seen
in table 2.2 below.
Fig. 2.4: Ko Annan; the former UN
Secretary General.
Name Country Years of Service
Trygve Lie Norway 1946-1952 (Resigned due to constant criticism by
the USSR).
Dag Hammarskjold Sweden 1953-1961 (Died in a plane crash in Congo while
trying to restore peace in 1961)
U Thant Burma 1961 - 1971
Kurt Waldheim Austria 1972 - 1981
Javier Perez de Cuellar Peru 1982 - 1991
Boutros Boutros Ghali Egypt 1992 - 1996
Ko Annan Ghana 1997-2006
Ban Ki-moon S. Korea 2007 - 2016
Antonio Guterres Portugal 2017-
Table 2.2: The Secretary Generals of the UN since its formation to date.
(d) The Economic and Social
Council
The Economic and Social Council has a
membership of 27 members. They are
elected by the General Assembly for
a three-year term. The Council deals
primarily with matters pertaining to
economic development, health and
education. It works through various
specialised UN agencies, for example,
the International Labour Organisation
(ILO), the World Health Organisation
(WHO), the United Nations Children’s
Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the
41
40
United Nations Environmental
Programme (UNEP), the United
Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), and the Food and Agricultural
Organisation (FAO) among others.
(e) International Court of
Justice
The International Court of Justice is
based at the Hague, Netherlands.
The court has fteen judges who are
appointed by the Security Council and
the General Assembly for a nine-year
term and may be re-elected. No two
judges may be from the same country.
Decisions of the court are nal. It deals
with international disputes such as
international borders, the treatment
of diplomatic and consular staff,
nuclear tests and territorial waters
delimitation.
Its functions are:
1. Handling all the legal matters and
disputes between states.
2. Giving advisory opinion to the
United Nations and its specialised
agencies.
3. Interpreting treaties.
(f) The Trusteeship Council
The Council was established to
supervise former League of Nations
mandates as well as those territories
that were taken away from the Axis
Powers at the end of the Second World
War. The Council’s major role was
to monitor political developments in
dependent territories and to pressurise
colonial powers and the world in
general to work towards decolonisation.
This has been achieved to an extent,
since there are only a few islands in
the Pacific, Indian and the Atlantic
Oceans which are still under foreign
domination to date. Some of these
islands are shown on table 2.3 below.
Name Location Colonising
power
Caroline
Islands
Pacic
Ocean
USA Trust
Territory
Marianna
Islands
Pacic
Ocean
USA
Falklands
Islands
Atlantic
Ocean
Britain
St. George
Islands
Atlantic
Ocean
Britain
Amsterdam
Islands
Indian
Ocean
France
Cocos
islands
Indian
Ocean
Australia
Table 2.3: Islands still under foreign domination.
Performance of the UN
UN has been able to make several
achievements since its formation.
They include:
(i) The UN has encouraged peaceful
settlement of disputes between
member states, for example,
between India and Pakistan in
1948 and in the Congo crisis of
1960. The UN is currently working
out modalities for a peaceful
solution to the Middle East crisis
between the Israelites and the
Palestinians.
The UN has also been mediating
in other countries that are ravaged
by civil strife. On 18th and 19th
October 2004, for example, the UN
Security Council met in Nairobi,
Kenya, to try and put an end to the
21 years of civil war in Southern
Sudan as well as the conict in
Darfur. The UN Secretary-General
then, Kofi Annan, chaired the
meeting.
The Khartoum government was
41
40
after the proclamation of Unilateral
Declaration of Independence (UDI)
by Ian Smith in 1965. Sanctions
were also imposed on Libya after
refusal by Colonel Muammar
Gaddafi to hand over the two
suspects of the Lockerbie incident,
in which a Pan American air craft
with over 280 people on board
crashed causing the death of all on
board. In 1998, Gadda gave in to
the demands and the two suspects
were subsequently tried. Sanctions
against Libya were then lifted.
(iii)The UN has sent peace keeping
forces to areas that are ravaged
by war and conict, for example,
in Namibia before she attained
independence, in the Middle East
to resolve the Middle East crisis
between Israel and Palestine, and
in Bosnia due to civil strife in the
country. UN peace keeping forces
have also been sent to Somalia,
East Timor, Sierra Leone, Eritrea
and Ethiopia.
(iv)The UN has encouraged the
development and application of
international law through the
establishment of the International
Court of Justice. Aggrieved
parties can send their petitions
for arbitration by the court.
(v) The Disarmament Commission of
the UN encourages disarmament
and it has sponsored numerous
conferences on disarmament in
order to promote peace in the
world.
(vi) The UN has encouraged the
process of decolonisation and
thus helped to and one of the
major sources of world conflict.
Through its Trusteeship Council,
many countries in Africa attained
independence in the 1960’s and
represented by the former vice-
president, Ali Osman Tahar, while
the Sudan Peoples’ Liberation
M ovement/Army (SPLM/A)
was represented by the late Dr.
John Garang. An agreement that
addressed the key issues of power
sharing and a new constitution
was thus signed.
Fig.2.5: Former SPLM/A leader the late
John Garang (right), former Sudanese Vice-
president, Ali Osman Tahar (left) and Kenyan
president Mwai Kibaki (centre) celebrating
successful agreement to end war.
More recently, the former UN
Secretary General Kofi Annan
chaired mediation talks in Kenya.
The two political leaders Mwai
Kibaki and Raila Odinga had
disagreed over the results of
the 2007 presidential general
elections. He held talks with them
and managed to bring about an
agreement in forming a coalition
government.
(ii) Mandatory economic and social
sanctions h ave been imposed
against countries that are seen
as a threat to world peace.
For example, the UN imposed
sanctions against South Africa
in order to pressurise her to
end the apartheid policy and on
Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)
43
42
1970’s. For example, pressure
from the UN led to Namibia’s
independence and the collapse
of the apartheid regime in South
Africa.
(vii)
It promotes general awareness in
the world through publications
such as journals and reports.
(viii)
The UN promotes regional co-
operation. The African Union
and the Organisation of American
States are both afliated to the UN.
(ix) The UN promotes and protects
human rights through the
International Human Rights
Commission and other human
rights pressure groups.
(x) The UN authorises the use of
force to restore peace in different
regions as evidenced during the
Gulf War I.
(xi) The UN has promoted social and
economic development of the
Third World countries through
the work of its agencies, for
example:
• United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees (UNHCR)
It provides food, shelter and other
basic facilities to refugees all
over the world. It also negotiates
for the return to their original
homelands.
• World Health Organisation (WHO)
It helps in the control of a range
of diseases and other causes of
death such as malnutrition. Small
pox has already been eradicated
in the world. The focus now is on
malaria and HIV and AIDs.
• United Nations Educational,
Scientic and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO)
It attempts to eliminate illiteracy
and to promote social cultural
relations between nations.
• United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF)
Attempts to improve the
education and health of children
particularly in the developing
countries.
• United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP)
It helps in the protection of the
environment throughout the world.
• Food and Agricultural
Organisation (FAO)
It helps increase food production
through scientic research.
• World Bank (International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development)
It gives loans to nations for
development or balance of
payments support.
• International Labour Organisation
(ILO)
It promotes the welfare of the
workers.
Challenges
The UN faces challenges that interfere
with its operations. These challenges
include:
(i) Ideological differences between
member states. This interferes with
decision making and the success
of the UN. These differences were
more pronounced during the era of
the Cold War between the USA and
the former USSR due to mistrust
and suspicion against each other.
(ii) Member states of the UN are
sovereign states and thus resent
interference in affairs that they
consider to be internal. The policies
of nations are thus governed by self-
interest.
(iii) The UN lacks sufficient funds
to perform its duties efciently.
Funds to run the organisation
come from contributions by
43
42
member states. The funds are
not remitted on time and in some
cases, member states do not pay.
(iv) Lack of an effective machinery
to enforce its decisions affects its
performance. The UN does not
have its own army to enforce
decisions and thus relies on
member states to effect them. It is
member states who, for example,
send soldiers to assist in UN peace
keeping missions to countries torn
by war and civil strife.
(v) The UN is dominated by the ve
permanent members who often
use their veto power as a tool of
serving their own interests. During
the Vietnam war, for example, the
USA used her veto power to block
the UN from acting. Similarly,
Britain used her veto power to
keep the UN out of the Falklands
during a crisis in the island.
(vi) Member states of the UN are also
members of other regional and
international organisations. They
thus tend to put the interests of
these organisations before those
of the UN.
(vii)
The arms race which was caused
by the C old W ar has tended to
encourage and sustain conflict
rather than peace.
(viii)
The UN’s attempts to promote
peace in the world have been
frustrated by deep rooted
regional conflicts, for example,
the Palestinian-Israeli conict.
(ix) The UN charter prohibition on
interference in the internal affairs
of sovereign states has been a
great setback to ghting for peace.
In the past, internal wars have
been fought without intervention
by the UN. For example, the
Rwanda genocide of 1994.
2. The Commonwealth
Formation
The Commonwealth is a voluntary
association of independent states
which are either former colonies of
Britain or self-governing dominions
of the British Empire. Britain is also a
member of the Commonwealth. The
original Commonwealth comprised
of Britain and her dominions, that is,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand and
the Union of South Africa. The modern
Commonwealth began in 1949, when,
upon attaining a republican status,
India, a former colony of Britain,
opted to join the Commonwealth. She
was followed a year later by Ceylon
(now Sri Lanka). Membership to the
Commonwealth steadily increased as
more countries joined the association
upon attaining independence from
Britain.
The formation of the Commonwealth
was motivated by economic and
political factors. Britain wished to
maintain good relations with her former
colonies for economic gain. The former
colonies on the other hand wanted to
benefit economically and politically
from associating with Britain.
The principles and aims of the
Commonwealth as spelt out in the
1971 Commonwealth Declaration are
as follows:
(a) To promote world peace and
international understanding by
supporting the efforts of the United
Nations in this endeavour.
(b) To promote the rights of individuals
regardless of race , creed, colour or
political belief.
(c) To eradicate all forms of
colonial domination and racial
45
44
discrimination throughout the
world.
(d) To raise the standards of living
of the peoples of the world by
seeking ways of eradicating
poverty, disease and ignorance.
In this regard, the Commonwealth
also aims at bridging the gap
in wealth between the rich and
the poor nations by promoting
economic development in poor
member states.
(e) To promote the exchange of
information on social, economic
and political developments among
member states.
Membership
Membership is drawn from all the
continents of the world as well as island
states situated in the Indian, Atlantic
and Pacic oceans. The membership is
voluntary and member states are free to
withdraw and rejoin the organisation
when they desire to do so. In 1961, for
example, South Africa withdrew her
membership from the Commonwealth
when her interests were in conict with
those of the organisation. She had been
criticised over the Sharpeville Massacre
of 1960 and her policy of apartheid. She
rejoined the organisation in 1994 after
the all-race elections that were won by
the African National Congress. Pakistan
similarly withdrew in 1972 after several
member states recognised the new
nation of Bangladesh, formerly East
Pakistan.
In 1995, during the Commonwealth
Summit held in Sri Lanka, Mozambique
a former Portuguese colony was
admitted into the Commonwealth.
The admission of Mozambique
into the Commonwealth was done
purely out of economic and strategic
considerations.
Structure of the
Commonwealth
Head of State Summit
This is the main decision making body
of the organisation.
The Head of State Summit holds
meetings of the head of states of the
member states. The meetings are
held after every two years in any
Commonwealth state. The following
are the functions of the Head of State
Summit:
1. Discussing economic and social
issues affecting member states.
2. Making important decisions
concerning the organization.
Decisions are made through a
consensus and not through a
vote.
Fig. 2.6: Queen Elizabeth II, the head of
Commonwealth.
Ministerial meetings
These meetings are attended by
45
44
various ministers of the member states.
Ministers heading specic ministries
meet separately and at different times.
For example, there can a meeting
of nance ministers or ministers of
defence. The ministers discuss issues
affecting different ministries and
make recommendations.
The Secretariat
The Secretariat is headed by the
Secretary General who is appointed
by member states. Its headquarters
are in Britain.
Its functions include:
1. Carrying out correspondence by
circulating information to help
member states in formulating
policies.
2. Organising Head of States
summit meetings and Ministerial
conferences.
3. Coordinating programs to promote
coordination among member
states.
Characteristics of member
states of the Commonwealth
(a) Member states use English as the
ofcial language.
(b) They have close economic ties,
and the rich provide the poorer
members with economic and
technical aid.
(c) They have close cultural ties such
as the Commonwealth Games.
(d) They recognise the King or Queen
of England as the head of the
association.
(e) There is regular consultation and
exchange of information between
member states.
(f) The educational systems of the
member states are similar to that
of Britain.
In the recent past, however,
most countries have developed
education systems to suit their
local needs. For example Kenya’s
8-4-4 system.
(g) The public institutions of most
Commonwealth countries are
similar to Britain’s. These include
the parliamentary and the legal
systems.
Functions
The Commonwealth performs several
functions that are of benefit to its
members. These range from social,
economic and political issues. The
following are the major functions of
the Commonwealth association:
(i) It provides a forum for consultations
by member states on a range of
issues of interest for example,
security and defence.
(ii) It provides special privileges
or preferential treatment to the
member states in matters of trade.
(iii)It assists the economically poor
member states to meet some of
their economic needs.
(iv) It provides consultancy,
information and training services
for member governments which
have administrative problems.
(v) It gives financial assistance
to member states to pursue
various projects through the
Commonwealth Development
Corporation. The corporation also
provides training for nationals of
member countries so that they can
take over the management of local
projects from expatriates.
(vi) It provides advice, expertise and
training facilities to member states
47
46
through the newly established
Commonwealth Fund for Technical
Cooperation.
(vii)
It assists projects and activities
initiated by or for the youth
in member countries. It also
encourages the youth to participate
in national development. This is
done through the Commonwealth
Youth Programme.
(viii)
It promotes the development
of education of the member
states, for example, through
exchange programmes. It also
offers scholarships to students
from member countries to pursue
further studies in countries such
as Britain, Canada and Australia.
(ix) It helps the development of the
legal systems of member states.
The S ecretariat has a legal division
that assists in this.
(x) It helps improve the health sector
in member states. Through the
purchase of medical equipment
and in the development of health
projects.
(xi) It encourages regular meetings
of parliamentarians of member
states. The Commonwealth
parliamentary Association
provides a forum for regular
consultation of parliamentarians
on issues of good governance.
(xii)
It fosters close co-operation and
exchange of information among
broadcasting stations of member
states. The Commonwealth Press
Union and the Commonwealth
Broadcasting Association facilitate
contact among member states.
Challenges
The Commonwealth faces many
difculties. These include:
(a) It do es not have an executive
authority over its members. This
is because the Commonwealth is a
voluntary association and member
states can join and leave at any
time. For example, in 1961, South
Africa withdrew her membership
and later rejoined.
(b) Member states at times put interests
of other organisations before those
of the Commonwealth. This is
because they are also members of
other regional and international
organisations.
(c) Member states of the association
are sovereign states whose policies
may at times conict with those of
the Commonwealth. This has in the
past led to the withdrawal of some
member states from the association,
for example, South Africa and
Pakistan.
(d) The Commonwealth lacks
sufficient funds to meet its
nancial obligations since most
of the members are poor.
(e) Political instability in some
countries of Africa and Asia has
affected promotion of peace and
good governance.
3. Non-Aligned
Movement
Non-A lignment is a foreign policy
approach or strategy that was adopted
by a number of states, drawn mainly
from the developing countries of
Africa, Asia, and the Middle East in
their relations with other states in
the international community. When
a state is non-aligned, it means that
she has the freedom to decide to
47
46
support or withdraw support for
any other country on any issue. The
non-aligned strategy therefore, does
not encourage permanent support or
alliance between states on international
issues. It is also important to note that
being non-aligned does not mean non-
involvement or non-participation in
all matters that are of concern to the
international community.
Apart from the countries of Africa,
Asia and the Middle East, a number of
European countries also adopted the
non-aligned strategy. They not only
avoided having permanent alliances
with any of the super powers, but
they also avoided lending permanent
diplomatic support to any nation.
The European countries that used the
non-aligned strategy are Yugoslavia,
Finland, Sweden and Ireland.
Marshall Tito, President of Yugoslavia
was one of the founder members of
the movement. The other founder
members were Jawaharlal Pandit
Nehru, Prime Minister of India and
Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of
Egypt.
Formation
Non-alignment as a foreign policy
has its origins in several meetings
that were held in Europe and Asia by
representatives of several Asian and
African countries during the post-war
period. The Bandung Conference, held
in Indonesia in 1955 is regarded as
the turning point for non-alignment.
The conference was attended by
participants who were drawn from
Africa, Asia and the Middle East. The
heads of state of China, India, Egypt,
Indonesia and Yugoslavia were in
attendance.
The Bandung Conference discussed
the following issues:
(i) The strategy to adopt in dealing
with international issues that
affected them individually or
collectively, for example, the Cold
War.
(ii) Failure by the western powers to
consult the newly independent
states of Asia on issues affecting
them.
(iii) The existing tension between
socialist China and capitalist USA.
They feared the tension could
threaten peace in the region.
(iv)The members discussed the issue
of colonialism. They vowed to
do everything at their disposal to
ensure that all countries were freed
from colonial domination.
In 1961 another meeting was
held in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. It
was attended by 25 heads of state
and government. In 1973 a Non-
Aligned Movement Co-ordination
Bureau was set-up in Belgrade.
The seventh summit of the Non-
Aligned Movement was held in
New Delhi, India in 1983 and was
attended by representatives from
101 member states. Since then
other meetings have been held at
various capitals.
Reasons for the formation of
the Non-Aligned Movement
(i) After the Second World War, the
USA and the USSR emerged as
the two most powerful nations in
the world, economically, militarily
and politically. They began a
rivalry for predominance in
world affairs. Their rivalry was
expressed in ideological terms,
that is capitalism versus socialism.
They also began to seek ways
49
48
of enlisting the support of other
nations. The newly independent
nations of Africa, Asia and the
Middle East were concerned about
the strategy to adopt in the context
of the power rivalry between the
super powers.
Participants at the Bandung
Conference thus resolved that the
newly independent states would
adopt a strategy in which they
would avoid being under the
control of either power blocs. They
resolved that in their relations with
the super powers and any other
state, they would not automatically
and permanently support any of
the states in all issues. The strategy
was therefore adopted in response
to the Cold War and attempts by
the super powers to control the
newly independent states.
(ii) They adopted the non-aligned
strategy to inuence the behaviour
and attitudes of the super powers
and make them realise the dangers
they were posing to international
peace and security. Non-aligned
countries were, for example,
opposed to the arms race.
(iii)The newly independent states
wished to establish their own
distinct identities in world politics
to avoid control by Europe. They
wished to act as equal members of
the international community.
(iv)They wanted to safeguard their
independence and show their
citizens that they were truly
independent. They also wanted to
use their strength of independence
from the super powers, and their
unity of purpose to pressurise for
the independence of countries that
were still under the colonial yoke.
(v) The developing countries wanted
to use their unity to ght further
economic exploitation by the
west. While their interest was to
develop their economies which
had been shattered by colonialism,
the developed countries wanted to
further exploit the economies and
natural resources of the developing
countries.
(vi)The developing countries were
convinced that by being non
aligned they would benet from
aid from both blocs to nance their
development projects.
Performance
Since the Bandung Conference of
1955, the Non-Aligned Movement has
held several other conferences where
issues concerning member states are
discussed. The conferences are held
on a rotational basis every four years
in the capitals of member states. They
are attended by the heads of states and
governments of member states.
The Non-A ligned Movement has,
over the years, increased its inuence
in world affairs through membership
to the UN. The non-aligned countries
form a majority the UN General
Assembly.
Non-alignment has been regarded as
an important diplomatic weapon for
influencing the super powers. And
securing maximum assistance from the
rest of the developed world.
The Non Aligned Movement made
several achievements:
(i) It enabled member countries to
formulate policies freely and
according to their needs and
situations since they did not lean
towards any power.
(ii) It greatly contributed to the
easing of international tension
49
48
experienced between the capitalist
western and communist Eastern
European countries.
(iii)The movement provided an
international forum where
members could speak with one
voice.
(iv) The Non Aligned Movement
played a big role on disarmament
conference where it condemned
the arms race.
(v) The Non Aligned Movement
led to the creation of the new
international economic order
where non aligned nations were
open for economic aid from both
blocs.
Challenges
(i) Disagreements, conflicts and at
times wars between member states
have affected the performance
of the movement. In Africa such
conicts and wars arose as a result
of Somalia’s border claims against
Kenya and Ethiopia. In Asia,
the conflicts occurred between
Cambodia and Thailand over their
borders, India and Sri Lanka over
the Tamils, and India and Pakistan
over Kashmir.
(ii) The movement has been affected
by political instability due to civil
wars and military coup d’etats in
some member states.
(iii) Most member countries are poor.
They are therefore not able to
remain economically independent
because they require aid from both
the east and the west. This makes
it impossible for them to pursue
independent policies.
(iv)The movement lacks funds due to
the poverty of some of its member
states who are not able to remit
their dues on time or at all.
(v) Lack of a secretariat makes the co-
ordination of its activities difcult.
(vi) Personality conicts between some
heads of states have undermined
the holding of fruitful discussions.
(vii)
Member states are also loyal to
other organisations such as the
OAU, the European Union and the
Commonwealth. This has affected
their commitment and active
participation.
(viii)
The break up of the USSR and the
subsequent end of the Cold War
has destabilised the movement.
The Cold War
The C old W ar refers to the rivalry
that developed between the USA and
her allies on the one hand, and the
USSR and her allies on the other. It
developed after World War II and was
referred to as the ‘Cold War’ because
it was not fought with weapons, but
with words and propaganda. The
two powers also provided military
and nancial aid to the enemies of the
opposing blocs.
The USA and the USSR rose to world
prominence during World War
II. Their involvement in the war
contributed to Germany’s defeat,
and though united during the war,
the alliance did not last long. Their
relations soon turned into a Cold War
which lasted between 1945 and 1991.
The Cold War was characterised by:
(i) Hostile USA-USSR relations.
(ii) The build-up of arms by both
powers.
(iii) Mutual suspicion between USA
and USSR.
Causes of the Cold War
The Cold War was caused by the
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50
following:
(a) Ideological differences
Mutual suspicion, based on
ideological differences, developed
between the USA and her allies
and the USSR and her allies. The
USA was capitalist while the
USSR was communist. The USA
feared that the USSR would spread
communism in Western Europe
and other parts of the world. On
the other hand the USSR also
feared the spread of capitalization
wanted to put an end to the spread
of communism.
(b) USA’s military advancement
By 1945, the USA was the only
country in the world that possessed
atomic weapons. This created fear
in the communist world and the
USSR thus took a very tough line
in dealing with the crises such as
the Greek civil war that occurred in
the 1940’s. This increased tension
between the two opposing blocs.
(c) Europeanconictsinthelate
1940’s
A number of conflicts occurred
in the late 1940’s which increased
tension between the USA and the
USSR. The Greek Civil War (1944-
1950) and the Berlin Blackade
(1948-1949) are examples of such
conicts.
(d) Disarmament
After 1945, the Allied powers held
several conferences in Europe and
the USA. The main concern then
was the maintenance of peace and
security in the world in order to
avoid the occurrence of another
war. The USA was particularly
concerned with the manufacture
and use of dangerous weapons.
In 1946, the UN established the
Atomic Energy Commission
to discuss ways and means of
developing peaceful uses of atomic
energy and of preventing its use
for the purposes of aggression.
The US thereafter proposed a
plan for the international control
of atomic energy to the UN. The
plan was subsequently accepted
by the western powers. The USSR
and her allies rejected it and
insisted that nations that are in
possession of atomic weapons
should destroy them before
the plan for inspection could
be effected. The disagreement
between the USA and the USSR
over the issue of disarmament
increased the tension between
them. Both nations therefore
continued to increase their stock
piles of atomic weapons. In 1949,
the USSR exploded its own atomic
bomb.
(e) UN domination by western
powers
The domination of the UN by
western powers intensified the
tension between the USA and the
USSR. The USSR resolved to use the
veto as a weapon to ght the W est
and to reassert herself in the UN.
A proposal by the USA to limit the
veto power was rejected by the
USSR. This in essence meant that
most proposals that originated
from the USA could not be passed
because of the USSR’s use of the
veto.
(f) Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall was constructed in
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50
1961 by the Soviet union in order
to prevent any form of interaction
between the residents of East and
West Berlin. This was done out
of fear that the residents of East
Berlin would be exposed to the
better standards of living in the
West. They feared this would cause
the people of East Berlin to hate
communism.
The wall was guarded. The
construction of the Berlin Wall
heightened tension between the two
power blocs and almost led to war.
During the cold war each power
established and strengthened ties with
the nations that were allied to her.
The following are some of the steps
that both the USA and the USSR took
in order to strengthen their ties with
their allies.
(a) USA
(i) Marshall Plan
In July 1947, the USA Congress
passed the Foreign Assistance Act
which established the European
Recovery Program or the Marshall
Plan. Under the Marshall Plan, the
USA provided economic assistance
to the western European nations
that had been devastated by war.
Initially a sum of $5.3 billion was set
aside for the programme. By 1950,
Western Europe was economically
stable.
Fig. 2.7: General George C. Marshall together
with others established the Marshall Plan.
(ii) North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO)
NATO, a military alliance of the
USA and other western powers
was formed on 4
th
April 1949.
The members of the organisation
were Britain, Belgium, Canada,
Denmark, Iceland, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
Norway, Portugal and the USA.
Other western European states
joined later. The members pledged
to assist each other militarily in the
event of armed aggression against
any one of them. NATO later set
up specialised military organs
such as the Defence and Military
Committee to ensure the overall
security of western Europe. NATO
has its own armed forces and is still
in existence.
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52
(iii)
Truman Doctrine (1947)
The Truman Doctrine, named after
the President of the USA then,
Harry Truman, aimed at assisting
both militarily and economically
nations that were threatened by
communist subversion.
In 1947, Harry Truman declared
before the USA C ongress that
the USA would support ‘free
peoples’ whenever their freedom
was threatened. Consequently
the Truman Doctrine was
proclaimed by the C ongress.
The USA thereafter began to
provide military and nancial aid
to any country threatened by a
communist aggressor. The Truman
Doctrine is widely considered to
have triggered the ofcial eruption
of the Cold War.
(b) USSR
(i) Cominform (1947)
The Communist Information Bureau
was established by the USSR in
1947. It was supposed to co-ordinate
the activities of communist parties
throughout the world.
(ii) Comecon (1949)
The Council for Mutual Economic
Assistance (COMECON) was
formed by the USSR in order to
strengthen economic links between
the communist countries of Eastern
Europe. This was in retaliation to
the USA’s Marshall Plan. Inspite
of this, Eastern Europe did not
achieve economic recovery as fast
as W estern Europe.
(iii)
The Warsaw Pact (1955)
The USSR founded the Warsaw
Pact in May 1955 as a reaction
to the western build-up of arms
and alliances. Its members were
Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,
East Germany, Hungary, Poland,
Romania and the USSR. The
members agreed to integrate their
armed forces in order to collectively
face both individual and joint
aggression.
Course of the Cold War
The Cold War started in Europe, but it
soon spread to other parts of the world.
The ideological differences between the
USA and the USSR were manifested
whenever a conict arose in any part
of the world. The two countries would
support opposing warring factions,
depending on whether the latter took
a capitalist approach or a communist
one. Both powers did this in order to
try and extend their inuence in the
countries involved.
We shall examine some of the areas
where major conflicts between the
two powers occurred during the Cold
War period.
Vietnam
Vietinam was called Indo-china.
Vietnam had been a French Colony but
was partitioned into north and south in
1954 after the French withdrawal from
Indo-China. The north was controlled
by the C ommunists, whose leader
was Ho Chi Minh. It was largely due
to his leadership abilities that the
French were defeated. Soon after, the
Communists began to steadily extend
their inuence to the south where their
soldiers, ‘the Vietcong’ operated.
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52
The USA was worried that South
Vietnam would also fall under
communism, thus began to give her
military assistance. In the early 1960’s
the USA committed herself to a full
scale war against the Vietcong. A long
and costly war then ensued. Following
negotiations, the USA accepted a
humiliating withdrawal in 1973.
However, the war continued until 1975
when Vietnam was formally re-unied
under communist rule.
The following factors contributed to
USA’s defeat:
(a) The Vietcong employed guerilla
war tactics which disadvantaged
the Americans were not familiar
with the terrain.
(b) The peasant population in the
south at times fought alongside
the Vietcong, as they had promised
them land reforms once the
struggle against the Americans
was over.
(c) The Vietcong received military
assistance from North Vietnam,
China and the USSR.
(d) The South Vietnamese people
disliked the USA soldiers as they
were foreigners. They detested
their presence in their country.
(e) Public opinion in the USA was
opposed to the Vietnam war. The
war was in any case too costly and
thus the USA government had to
withdraw.
Cuba
The USA and the USSR clashed in Cuba
during the late 1950’s and the early
1960’s. In 1959, Fidel Castro had come
into power in Cuba after ousting General
Batista with the support of the USSR.
The USA had supported General Batista
and even tried to remove Fidel Castro
from power. The USA was opposed to
Castro’s nationalisation programme
which affected her investments in Cuba.
The USA also opposed Castro’s socialist
policies.
In 1961, the USA President, John F.
Kennedy, supported the invasion
of Cuba by Cuban exiles who were
opposed to Castro. The ‘Bay of Pigs
invasion’ was not only a failure, but it
also strengthened Castro’s alliance with
the USSR.
In 1962, USA’s spy planes spotted
rocket sites in Cuba. The USA then
realised that the USSR was equipping
Cuba with missiles which could re
far into the USA. President Kennedy
demanded that the USSR remove her
missiles and imposed a blockade on all
communist military ships approaching
Cuba to prevent her from receiving
new missiles. He also demanded the
destruction of all the missile sites in
Cuba. On 28th October 1962, the USSR
leader, Khrushchev, obliged. The USA
in turn lifted the blockade on Cuba
and the crisis came to an end.
Fig.2.8: Former USA President John F. Kennedy
Europe
In Europe, the conict between the
USA and the USSR occurred in Greece
and Germany.
55
54
(a) Greek Civil War (1944-1950)
During the Second World War, the
Greek government was toppled.
It returned to power with British
support but was rejected by a
powerful communist guerilla
movement which was assisted by
the USSR. This led to a prolonged
war. The communists were
supported by the USSR and other
communist states such as Bulgaria,
Albania and Yugoslavia while
the M onarchists were supported
by Britain and the USA. In 1947,
the USA congress voted for
funds to assist the M onarchists.
The C ongress also ratified the
Truman Doctrine which, as earlier
explained, stated that the USA
would use her resources to stop
the spread of communism in the
world. USA’s assistance led to a
monarchist victory and in 1950
a democratic government was
elected.
(b) Berlin Blockade (1948-1949)
After the surrender of Germany
in 1945, the country was divided
and administered into four zones
of occupation. Britain, USA, USSR
and France each occupied a zone.
The capital, Berlin, which lay deep
inside the Soviet zone was divided
into four zones too. In 1946 In a bid
to force the western powers out of
West Berlin, Josef Stalin cut off all
rail and road links with Berlin.
The west began to airlift supplies of
food, clothing and other essential
commodities to the residents of
West Berlin. The blockade lasted
for almost a year and drove the two
blocs further apart. In May 1949,
the USSR lifted the blockade. By
then the USA Airforce had made
about 300,000 ights into Berlin.
During the peak of the blockade
more than 8,000 tonnes of supplies
were transported into Berlin daily.
From the above discussion we can
conclude that Europe had been
divided into two opposing blocs, the
capitalist west and the communist
east. The two were divided by
an ‘iron curtain,’ an impenetrable
barrier that geographically divided
Europe down the middle between
capitalist and communist states.
The articial division of Europe
worsened international relations.
Angola
Angola gained independence from
Portugal in 1975 under the Soviet
and Cuban backed MPLA Union
Popular Movement for the Liberation
of Angola, of Agostinho Neto.
Soon afterwards, the country was
plunged into a civil war. Two regional
parties the FNLA, National Front
for the Liberation of Angola) and
UNITA National Union for the Total
Independence of Angola opposed the
government. The FNLA was led by
Holden Roberto while UNITA was led
by Jonas Savimbi. Both the FNLA and
UNITA were supported by the USA.
From 1989 the USSR began to reduce
her assistance to Angola. This paved
way for democratic processes which
led to elections whereby both the
MPLA and UNITA participated.
Decline and End of the Cold War
The Cold War intensied the hostility
between the two super powers over
economic and political dominance in
the world. Several attempts were made
55
54
to ease the mounting tension and to
enhance co-existence. A number of
summit meetings were held between
the leaders of the two powers and
these eventually led to the end of the
Cold War.
The main events which culminated in the end of the Cold War are shown below:
Year Event
1953
Stalin died and was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev who in 1956 announced
that the USSR would pursue a policy of peaceful co-existence.
1955 Leaders of Britain, France, the USA and the USSR met in Geneva,
Switzerland to discuss the reduction of the arms race. Though no major
decisions were arrived at, the atmosphere was cordial.
1963 Britain, USA and the USSR signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, which
banned nuclear tests under the sea, above the ground and in the
atmosphere. Only underground tests were allowed.
1968 The Non-Proliferation Treaty was signed by the super powers and
other countries. The treaty aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear
weapons to the non-nuclear powers.
1972 The USA and the USSR signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Talk
(SALT). In return for the agreements on arms limitation, the USSR
promised to allow more freedom to dissidents (anti-government
groups, Jews and certain minority groups in the country.
1985 In March, Mikhail Gorbachev became the President of the USSR and
soon embarked on basic reforms known as glasnost (openness) and
perestroika (economic reconstructing). In November, Gorbachev and
the USA President, Ronald Reagan, met in Geneva and re-opened
negotiations on the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks.
1991 Mikhail Gorbachev and George Bush Senior signed the Strategic Arms
Reduction Talks (START) treaty which limited each side to six thousand
war heads.
The Cold War had eased. East and
West Germany had been reunited
in October 1989 under Chancellor
Helmut Kohl. The USSR was also
on the verge of collapse, after the
secession of most of its states. The
collapse of the USSR nally ended
the Cold War. Some of the former
communist states in Eastern Europe,
for example, Ukraine and Poland
joined NATO.
Effects of the Cold War
(i) The two powers confronted each
other in various parts of the
world. Though they had fought
on a united front during the First
and the Second World War, their
co-operation ceased after 1945.
57
56
(ii) There was insecurity throughout
the world as both powers used any
means at their disposal, including
force, to spread their ideologies.
(iii) The Cold War led to an arms race
between the two powers, as each
wanted to outdo the other in
military technology.
(iv) It led to advancement in space
exploration. In 1961, Yuri Gagarin
orbited the earth. John Glenn of
the USA orbited the earth three
times in 1962. In 1968, three
US astronauts, Neil Armstrong,
Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. and Michael
Collins landed on the moon. The
Star Wars also termed as Strategic
Defence Initiative (SDI) came up.
The aim was to set up stations
in space, which, with the use of
radar and laser beams, would
destroy enemy missiles after they
had been launched before they
could cause any damage. The
USSR condemned the SDI arguing
that it was an extension of the war
into space.
(v) It led to the space race. After World
War II, the powers embarked on
the development of rockets which
they could use to explore the outer
space. The USSR launched their
rst rocket, the S putnik in 1957
and this led to competition for
further developments between
her and the USA.
(vi) The Cold War in some instances
led to actual armed conflict as
evidenced in Korea and Vietnam.
(vii)
It led to a competition for world
dominance between the two
powers. Most of the crises or wars
which occurred during the 1950’s
and 1960’s had their origin in the
Cold War.
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56
Activities
1. Hold a class debate on the topic: “The UN is a toothless bulldog”.
2. Dramatise a session of the UN Security Council. Select one of the following
headings:
(a) The Palestinian-Israeli conict.
(b) Gulf war II.
(c) Civil war in Sudan.
3. Divide the class into three groups, with each one selecting a topic for
presentation.
(a) Functions and challenges of Commonwealth.
(b) Reasons for formation and challenges of the Non-Aligned Movement.
(c) The decline and effects of the Cold War.
Exercise
1. What are the main objectives of the United Nations?
2. Analyse the achievements of the UN.
3. What are the main aims of the Commonwealth?
4. State the functions of the Commonwealth.
5. Explain the main challenges facing the Non-Aligned Movement.
6. Discuss the causes of the Cold War.
7. Describe the Cold War in Europe.
8. What factors contributed to the USA’s defeat in the Vietnam war?
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58
Co-operation in Africa owes its origin
to Pan-Africanism, Pan-Africanism is
a movement that strove to unite the
people of African descent throughout
the world. The African race had, for
centuries, been subjected to suffering
through enslavement in the Americas,
and to inhuman treatment that
characterised colonial rule throughout
Africa.
The black elite in the Americas and
in Africa therefore resolved to bring
together the people of African descent,
in order to elevate their status and
restore their dignity. The Pan-African
movement was thus formed to achieve
this objective. After formation, the Pan
African leaders began to pressurise the
colonial powers to decolonise Africa.
By the mid 1960’s, most African
countries had achieved their political
independence. In the meantime, the
leaders of the independent African
states had seen the need for unity. The
Organization of African Unity was
thus formed in 1963. The realisation
that political independence alone was
not enough led to the formation of
regional economic organisations.
In this chapter we shall examine
Pan-Africanism, the Organisation of
African Unity, the African Union and
selected regional organisations. These
are the East African Community (EAC),
the Common Market for Eastern
and Southern Africa (COMESA),
and the Economic Organisation of
West African States (ECOWAS). The
main aim of these organisations is to
promote trade within the regions they
represent.
Pan Africanism
Pan Africanism is a movement which
was founded at the beginning of the
20
th
century. The primary aim of Pan-
Africanism was to unite all the people
of African descent wherever they were
in the world. This unity was vital if
the black people were to succeed in
ghting against the doctrine of white
superiority, which had not only led
to their enslavement, but also to the
European colonisation of Africa.
Origin
The Pan African movement had
its origins in the Americas and the
Caribbeans. The founder members
of the movement were intellectuals
of African descent such as Henry
Sylvester Williams, Dr. William
E. Dubois, Booker T. Washington,
Marcus Garvey and George Padmore.
The Pan African leaders were inspired
by Mahatma Gandhi’s principle of
peaceful resistance. They therefore
adopted non-violent means to
pressurise the Europeans to recognise
them as equally human and to treat
them as such.
Pan Africanism originated out of
Unit
3
CO-OPERATION IN AFRICA
59
58
the desire by black people in the
Americas to achieve equality with
the whites. They had for centuries
been subjected to untold suffering
through years of enslavement. Though
the American people had fought for
their independence on the basis of
equality for all people, the black people
continued to be subjected to civil rights
abuse.
The educated Afro Americans against
the racist claims by whites, that
Africans were destined for slavery.
African scholars such as Olaudah
Equiano and Ottabah Cugoano, as
well as Edward Wilmot Blyden,
proved through their writings that
Africans had a rich history and
civilisation. European imperialism in
the late 19th century also contributed
to the rise of Pan-Africanism.
Aims of Pan-Africanism
(i) To provide a forum through which
black people from all over the world
could voice their protests against
European oppression.
(ii) To exert pressure on the western
European countries so that they
could end their colonial domination
and economic exploitation of
Africa.
(iii) To unite the people of African
descent throughout the world.
(iv)To secure democratic rights for all
the African people.
(v) To create a forum through
which protects against European
colonisation and racial
discrimination can be channelled.
(vi)To advocate for improvement of
the conditions of the Africans in
diaspora.
Development
Several conferences were held by
the Pan-Africanists to map out their
strategies. The first Pan-African
conference was held in London in 1900
and was sponsored by Henry Sylvester
Williams. The conference laid down
the foundation for future meetings,
and sowed the seeds of the spirit of
oneness of the African people. This
spirit has continued to appeal to the
black people all over the world. The
conference also created an awareness
among Europeans whose mistreatment
of other races, especially the blacks was
being questioned.
Similar conferences were held in Paris
(1919), London (1921), Lisbon (1923),
New York (1927) and Manchester
(1945).
During the Pan-African congress
of 1919, the participants passed
Fig. 3.1: W.E. Dubois; one of the founder
members of Pan-Africanism.
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60
a resolution which called for the
participation of the African people
in government. Marcus Garvey then
stated:
“If Europe is for the Europeans, then Africa
shall be for the black people of the world”.
Fig.3.2: Marcus Garvey; a founder member
of Pan-Africanism.
Pan-Africanism after 1945
(i) The sixth Pan-African
Conference, 1945
It was held in Manchester, England
and was attended by a number of
African delegates who included
Nnamdi Azikiwe of Nigeria,
Leopold Sedar Senghor of Senegal,
Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, Kamuzu
Banda of Malawi, Kwame Nkrumah
of Ghana and Julius Nyerere of
Tanzania. At this meeting it was
resolved that these nationalists
would go back to their countries
and lead them to independence,
an objective that was eventually
realised.
Up to 1945, Pan-Africanist activities
were conducted outside the African
continent but with limited African
participation.
The sixth Pan-African conference, held
in Manchester, England in 1945 was
the rst to directly involve African
participation. During this conference,
Dr W.E.B Dubois made his famous
statement:
“The problem of the 20
th
century is the
problem of the colour line”.
Several factors contributed to the
limited African participation in Pan-
Africanist activities:
(a) Pan-Africanism could not take root
in Africa because the movement
was opposed to colonialism, and
such movements were outlawed
by the colonial governments.
(b) The European policy of divide and
rule hindered free communication
and co-operation between Africans
from different colonies. There
was also lack of contact between
Africans in British, French, Spanish,
Italian and Portuguese colonies.
(c) Africans in each colony were pre-
occupied with their own internal
problems, for example, land
alienation and taxation.
(d) Africans lacked the machinery to
communicate Pan-Africanist ideas
across the continent.
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60
(b) The participation of Africans in
the two world wars destroyed the
myth of European superiority and
encouraged the Africans to ght
for their liberation.
(c) The United Nation’s support for the
equality of all people strengthened
nationalist movements and Pan-
Africanism.
Wit h this encouragement African
leaders organised Pan-Africanist
conferences within the African
continent as follows:
(ii) Accra Pan-African Conference
(1958)
The convenor was Kwame
Nkrumah and Tom Mboya of
Kenya was the chairperson. The
conference was attended by leaders
of Africa’s only independent
states, that is, Liberia, Egypt,
Tunisia, Ethiopia, Libya, Sudan,
Morocco and the host nation,
Ghana. It was also attended by
representatives of 62 nationalist
organisations from 28 African
countries. The importance of
African unity as well as the
formation of regional alliances was
underscored. The result was the
formation of regional groupings
such as the Ghana Guinea-Mali
Union and the Pan-African
Freedom M ovement of East and
Central Africa (PAFMECA).
The conference also encouraged
contact between African leaders
from both the independent nations
as well as those fighting for
independence. It also provided
independent African states with a
forum at which they could discuss
common problems facing their
countries and the entire continent.
Fig. 3.3: Some African leaders who were
delegates in the Pan-African conference of
1945.
Jomo Kenyatta Julius Nyerere
Kamuzu Banda
Kwame Nkrumah
Leopold Senghor
Nnamdi Azikiwe
Several conditions helped to popularise
the Pan-Africanist movement. These
were;
(a) Public opinion turned against
colonialism after W orld W ar II.
The practice was condemned
worldwide as immoral and
inhuman and this led to the
attainment of independence by
India (1947), Burma (1948), and
Ghana (1957). This inspired other
colonised countries and led to
the stepping up of Pan-Africanist
activities both outside and inside
Africa.
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62
(iii)
Addis-Ababa Pan-African
Conference (1960)
During this conference,
participating countries were
already divided into two groups.
These were:
(a) Casablanca Group
This group comprised Ghana,
Guinea, Mali and Egypt. The
group supported a strong
political union of Africa.
(b) Monrovia Group
This group comprised Liberia,
Nigeria, and nearly all the
French-speaking African states.
They favoured a loose federation
of African states.
(iv) Addis-Ababa Pan-African
Conference (1963)
The conference was convened as a
result of the efforts of Sekou Toure
(Guinea), Abdel Nasser (Egypt),
Emperor Haile Selassie (Ethiopia)
and the leaders of the Monrovia
Group to secure a loose association
of African states.
Consequently, a meeting of the
leaders of the independent African
states was held in Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. This resulted in the birth
of the O rganisation of African
Unity (OAU), now African Union.
Performance
(i) The movement created awareness
among people of African origin
all over the world about their
common experiences and
especially their sufferings. This
awareness was later to translate
into active nationalism and the
struggle for independence in
Africa.
(ii) The movement was the rst step
towards the restoration of the
status and the dignity of the African
people. This dignity had been
eroded by slave trade, colonialism
and racism.
(iii) Pan-Africanism was responsible
for the development of the spirit
of solidarity among African
people, a spirit that continues to
be evident to date.
(iv) The movement provided a forum
for the African people to discuss
their common problems, both
internal and external.
(v) Pan-Africanism gave birth to
African unity and was responsible
for the foundation of the OAU.
(vi) Pan Africansim laid basis for
interest in research of African
culture.
(vii) The movement encouraged
African nationalists to ght for
political independence after 1945
as some African leaders such as
Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkuruma
attended conference.
Problems faced by the Pan
African movement
1. Different leaders had different
strategies on how to uplift people
of African descent. While W.E.B
Dubois believed that Africans
should demand for their rights,
Booker T Washington advocated
for acquisition of knowledge and
Marcus Garvey advocated for
economic empowerment. This
made decision making a tough
task.
2. Europeans dominated the
media making it difcult for the
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62
Africans to create awareness of the
organisation.
3. The movement lacked enough
resources to organise and hold
meetings regularly. They depended
on European philanthropists.
4. High levels of illiteracy among
Africans. This made it difficult
for them to offer any meaningful
support to the organisation.
5. The arrest and imprisonment of
some leaders like Marcus Garvey
really demoralised Africans.
6. Most African countries were under
colonial rule and therefore it was
difcult for them to participate in
the pan-African conferences.
7. Divisions in Africa after
some countries had acquired
independence. This undermined
the movement’s objective
of uniting all Africans. Some
countries still continued to depend
on their colonial masters. This led
to a rift between the Anglophone
and francophone countries.
Organisation of African
Unity (OAU)
Formation
The OAU owes its origins to Pan-
Africanism whose major aim was to
unite the people of African descent
wherever they were in the world.
The Pan-African Conferences that
were held after World War II began to
focus on the independence of African
states as well as the need for them to
unite once independence was granted.
Although differences did occur over
the type of federation to be formed, it
was nally agreed that African states
would form a loose federation for the
time being.
The OAU was established on
25
th
May 1963 during a conference
held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
The conference was attended by
30 out of the then 32 independent
states of Africa. Among the leading
African statesmen who attended the
conference were; Julius Nyerere of
Tanzania, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana
and Haile Selassie of Ethiopia. Though
Morocco and Togo did not participate
in the conference, they later signed
the charter which institutionalised
the OAU. African states that were
yet to achieve independence sent
observers. Kenya became a member
in 1964. The headquarters of the OAU
was in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
O.A.U was replaced by the African
Union and so the headquarters
cannot still be Addis Ababa. Addis
Ababa is the headquarters of AU now.
The following are the countries that
signed the OAU Charter in May 1963:
The original 32 signatories of the OAU
Charter, 1963
Algeria
Burundi
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
Congo (Brazzaville)
Congo (Leopoldville-now
Democratic Republic of Congo)
Cote d’Ivoire
Dahomey (now Benin)
Egypt
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64
Ethiopia
Gabon
Ghana
Guinea
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Mali
Mauritania
Morocco
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Somalia
Sudan
Tanganyika (United with Zanzibar to
form Tanzania in 1964)
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso)
Membership of the
OAU, 2002
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo (Brazzaville)
Democratic Republic of Congo
Cote d’Ivoire
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
The Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
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64
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Table 3.1 Membership of OAU.
Signicance of the formation
of OAU
(i) It provided the African states
with a permanent organisation
through which they would discuss
problems affecting them and lay
strategies for solving them. Prior
to this, the states depended on
periodic conferences to solve their
problems.
(ii) It helped to create an African
identity in the world to counter
the myth of European racial
superiority.
(iii) It helped to satisfy a need to
co-ordinate and assist in the
speedy decolonisation of the rest
of Africa. The OAU therefore put
in place provisions for assisting
the various liberation movements
in those countries that were still
under colonial rule.
Charter
The OAU charter outlined the
objectives of the organisation as
follows:
(i) To promote the unity and
solidarity of the African people.
(ii) To co-ordinate and intensify
their co-operation and efforts
in order to improve the living
standards and the conditions of
the African people who had been
adversely affected by slave trade
and colonialism.
(iii) To help in the defence of the
independence of the African
states and in the maintenance of
their sovereignty and territorial
integrity. Kwame Nkrumah had
repeatedly talked about the threat
of neo-colonialism during his
tenure as president of Ghana. He
emphasised that former colonial
powers still harboured interests
in Africa and that they wanted
to maintain their inuence and
control through means other than
physical presence.
(iv) To promote co-operation among
African states, having due regard
to the charter of the UN and the
Universal Declaration of Human
Rights. This co-operation would
be in the economic, social, cultural
and political areas. There was,
for example, need for the newly
independent African states to
establish diplomatic relations
with one another and to co-
operate in education, health,
transport, agriculture, scientic
and defence matters.
Colonialism had left African
countries economically poor,
culturally alienated and with lack
of skilled manpower. Politically,
African states tended to feel
more at home with their former
colonial masters than with other
African countries. There was
therefore need for co-operation
among African states in all crucial
67
66
areas in order to help promote
the principle of non-alignment to
which Africa was committed.
(v) To promote respect for the
sovereignty of member states by
not interfering with their internal
affairs and showing respect for
their territorial boundaries. The
OAU charter condemns subversive
activities against member states and
also encourages states to pursue the
non-aligned policy.
(vi) To assist in the liberation of those
African countries which were still
under colonial rule by assisting
liberation movements in such
countries.
(vii)
To encourage the peaceful
settlement of disputes involving
member states.
Structure of the OAU
The main organs of the OAU are:
The Assembly of
Heads of State and
Government
The Council of
Ministers
The General
Secretariat
The Commission
for Mediation,
Conciliation and
Arbitration
Fig. 3.4: Main organs of the OAU.
(a) The Assembly of Heads
of State and Governments
This is the supreme organ of the OAU.
It comprises of Heads of State and
Government or their duly accredited
representatives. It meets once a year
but it can hold extra ordinary sessions
at the request of any member state and
on approval by a two thirds majority
of member states. The funtion of
the A ssembly is to discuss matters
of concern to the African continent.
Decisions are made by voting on the
basis of one state one vote, thus all
members have equal voting rights. The
OAU elects a chairperson from among
the Heads of State and Government.
The chairperson holds office for a
one-year period. Up to 1981, the
Heads of State and governments’
conferences were held in rotation in
various countries. The head of the
hosting state or government then
became the next OAU chairperson. In
1982, this was changed after member
states disagreed over the eligibility
of Colonel Muammar Gaddafi as
OAU chairman. The meeting that
was scheduled for Tripoli in that year
failed to take place due to lack of
quorum. Daniel arap Moi of Kenya was
therefore chairperson for two years,
from 1981 to 1983. Since 1983 it was
agreed that all OAU summit meetings
would be held at its headquarters in
Addis Ababa so as to avoid a similar
situation arising.
(b) The Council of Ministers
The Council of Ministers comprises
Foreign Affairs Ministers from member
states. The Council of Ministers meets
twice a year.
Its funtions include:
i) Preparing the agenda of the
meetings of the Heads of State and
Governments.
ii) Implementing decisions passed by
the heads
iii) Preparing the OAU budget for
approval. Their meetings precede
those of the Assembly.
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66
(c) The General Secretariat
The OAU has an administrative
Secretary General, appointed by
the Assembly of Heads of State and
Government to direct the affairs of
the Secretariat. The Secretary General
is elected for a four-year term and
can be re-elected for another term.
The Secretariat is based in Addis
Ababa. The OAU Secretariat provides
the organisation with the necessary
administrative services.
(d) Commission for Mediation,
Conciliation and Arbitration
The commission comprises 21 states.
It settles disputes that may arise
between member states.
Specialised Commissions
The OAU has specialised commissions
which deal with the more technical
aspects of the organisation’s work.
They include:
(a) Economic and Social Commission.
(b) Commission on Education and
Culture.
(c) Defence Commission.
(d) Conference of African Trade
Ministers.
(e) Co-ordination Committee for
African Liberation or Liberation
Committee.
(f) Health, Sanitation and Nutrition
Commission.
(g) Scientic, Technical and Research
Commission.
Performance
(i) The OAU has enabled Africa
to speak with one voice in
international fora such as the UN.
(ii) It has been able to unite the
diverse countries of Africa with
their differences in ideology,
levels of economic development,
colonial experience and the vast
geographical differences that
separate them.
(iii) The OAU helped in the liberation
of those countries which had not
been freed from the colonial yoke
by 1963. It gave military, material
and moral support to the liberation
movements in South Africa,
Angola, Mozambique, Namibia
and Zimbabwe. OAU support for
the African nationalists in South
Africa was responsible for the
attainment of majority rule in that
country.
(iv) The OAU has helped in the
settlement of disputes between
some member countries such as
Ethiopia and Somalia, Morocco
and Algeria, Kenya and Somalia
and between Chad and Nigeria.
(v) The OAU has addressed itself
to the refugee problem in Africa.
It has provided material assistance
to refugees fleeing from war-
ravaged countries such as Sudan,
Somalia, Rwanda, Burundi and the
Democratic Republic of Congo.
The OAU has thus helped to
provide African solutions to
African problems; which in its
absence would have attracted a
great deal of foreign interference
than is the case now.
(vi) It has provided a forum for
discussing Africa’s common
problems such as desertication,
foreign interference, the refugee
problem, over-reliance on one
trade commodity and Africa’s
dependency on foreign aid.
It has taken practical steps to
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68
improve agriculture, industry,
transport and communication,
trade, education and cultural
co-operation in Africa.
In 1980, with assistance from
the United Nations Economic
Commission for Africa, it
produced a document, the Lagos
Plan of Action, suggesting good
economic policies for Africa.
(vii)
The OAU has been instrumental
in the formation of regional
organisations such as ECOWAS
and the Preferential Trade Area,
PTA (now COMESA).
(viii)
The organisation has also helped
to restore the dignity and status of
the African people. The African
dignity had been undermined
by slave trade, colonialism and
racism.
(ix) The OAU has helped in the setting
up of economic organisations such
as the African Development Bank,
with its headquarters in Abidjan,
Cote d’ Ivoire. The bank gives
loans to African countries to enable
them undertake development
projects such as the construction
of roads, educational institutions
and other infrastructure.
(x) To further improve economic
co-operation between member
states, the OAU has encouraged
the construction of roads and
railways to link different regions,
for example, the Tanzania-Zambia
railway, the Great North Road and
the Trans-Africa Highway.
Challenges
(i) The OAU is not a super government.
It is an association of independent,
sovereign states. Each state becomes
a member of the organisation
because it has individually and
voluntarily decided to do so.
This means that it can withdraw
membership if it wishes to do
so. Some member states have
therefore tended to withdraw their
membership whenever they are not
in agreement with the decisions
of the OAU. In 1983, Morocco
withdrew membership as a result
of the OAU’s decision to recognise
the Polisario movement which was
then ghting to establish Western
Sahara as an independent state
from Morocco.
(ii) National interests have tended
to supersede those of the OAU.
Whereas the OAU as a regional
organisation attempts to serve
collective or regional interests, the
member states on the other hand
are rst and foremost concerned
about the interests of their nations.
They will only agree to OAU
decisions if such decisions do not
conict with their national interests
(iii) Personal differences between
Heads of State and Government
have in the past affected the
operations of the OAU. In 1975,
for example, Julius Nyerere of
Tanzania declined to attend
the OAU summit meeting in
Kampala, Uganda, because he
did not recognise Idi Amin as
President of Uganda.
(iv) Member states of the OAU are
also members of other regional
or international organisations
such as COMESA, the UN and the
Commonwealth. Sometimes the
interests of these organisations are
in conict with those of the OAU.
(v) Interference by the major
powers in the affairs of Africa
has undermined the unity of the
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68
countries and the people of
Africa.
(ii) To defend the sovereignty,
territorial integrity and
independence of its member
states.
(iii)
To accelerate the political and
social economic integration of the
continent.
(iv) To promote and defend African
common positions on issues of
interest to the continent and its
people.
(v) To encourage international co-
operation, taking due account of
the Charter of the United Nations
and the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights.
(vi) To promote peace, security and
stability on the continent.
(vii)
To promote democratic principles
and institutions, popular
participation and good
governance.
(viii)
To promote and protect human
and people’ rights in accordance
with the African Charter on
Human and People’ Rights and
other relevant human rights
instruments.
(ix) To establish the necessary
conditions which enable the
continent to play its rightful role
in the global economy and in
international negotiation.
(x) To promote sustainable
development at the economic,
social and cultural levels as well
as the integration of African
economies.
(xi) To promote co-operation in all
elds of human activity to raise
the standards of African people.
(xii)
To co-ordinate and harmonise
policies between existing and
African people. This has been the
case in Ethiopia, Angola and the
Democratic Republic of Congo.
(vi) There has been poor attendance
of summit meetings by member
states. It has been rather difcult to
assemble all member states for the
annual or extraordinary sessions. On
many occasions some heads of state
do not attend the meetings.
(vii)
The OAU depends on contributions
from member states to run the
organisation. Some member states
do not remit their dues on time.
Such delays cause problems
because the organisation is then
unable to meet its financial
obligations. Some members are
too poor to honour their nancial
obligations to the OAU. This
makes the operations of the OAU
very difficult because it has a
large Secretariat which has to be
maintained.
(viii)
The OAU does not have its
own army to enforce some of its
decisions.
African Union (AU)
Formation
The African Union was established
in the year 2000 to replace the
Organisation of African Unity (OAU).
The Charter of the Union was signed
on 11
th
July 2000 by 53 Heads of State
and Government.
Charter
The Charter of the African Union
outlines the objectives of the Union
as follows:
(i) To achieve greater unity and
solidarity between the African
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70
against humanity.
(ix) Peaceful co-existence of member
states and their right to live in
peace and security.
(x) The right of member states to
request intervention from the
Union in order to restore peace
and security.
(xi) Promotion of self-reliance within
the framework of the Union.
(xii) Promotion of gender equality.
(xiii)
Respect for democratic principles,
human rights, the rule of law and
good governance.
(xiv)
Promotion of social justice to
ensure a balanced economic
development.
(xv) Respect for the sanctity of human
life, condemnation and rejection
of impunity and political
assassination, acts of terrorism
and subversive activities.
(xvi)
Condemnation and rejection
of unconstitutional changes of
governments.
Structure of the African Union
The Organs of the African Union are;
Fig. 3.5: Organs of AU.
Assembly of the
Union
Executive
Council
The Pan-African
Parliament
The Court of
Justice
Commission
The
The
Specialised
Technical
Committees
Organs of the
African Union
The
Permanent
Representative
Committee
The Economic,
Social and
Cultural Council
The Financial
Institutions
(a) The Assembly
The Assembly comprise Heads of
State and Government or their duly
accredited representatives. It be the
supreme organ of the Union and will
meet at least once a year in ordinary
session. The Assembly a chairperson
future regional economic
communities for the gradual
attainment of the objectives of the
Union.
(xiii)
To advance the development
of the continent by promoting
research in all elds, particularly
in science and technology.
(xiv) To work with relevant international
partners in the eradication of
preventable diseases and the
promotion of good health in the
continent.
Principles of the African Union
The Union shall function in accordance
with the following principles which are
guidelines and rules that would assist
in the attainment of its objectives.
(i) Sovereign equality and
interdependence among member
states of the Union.
(ii) Respect of borders existing on the
achievement of independence.
(iii) Participation of the African people
in the activities of the Union.
(iv) Establishment of a common defence
policy for the African continent.
(v) Peaceful resolution of conflicts
among member states of the Union
through such appropriate means
as may be decided upon by the
Assembly.
(vi) Prohibition of the use of force or
threat to use force among member
states of the Union.
(vii)
Non-interference by any member
state in the internal affairs of
another.
(viii)
The right of the Union to
intervene in a member state in
accordance with a decision of
the Assembly with respect to
grave circumstances, namely
war crimes, genocide and crimes
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70
who is elected by the member states to
serve a one-year period.
Functions of the Assembly
1. Make decisions on reports and
recommendations of other organs.
2. Admit new members to the
organization.
3. Adopt the budget of the union.
4. Establishment of new organs.
5. Appoint judges of the court of
justice with the approval of the
council.
(b) The Executive Council
The Council will comprise Ministers
of Foreign Affairs or other ministers
charged with the responsibility of
dealing with AU. It will meet twice a
year in ordinary session. The Council
will co-ordinate and take decisions on
policies in areas of common interest to
the member states. These may include
foreign trade, industry, transport and
communication, science and technology.
(c) Pan-African Parliament
This will comprise elected
representatives from member states
of the Union.
(d) The Court of Justice
The court will deal with matters
of interpretation arising from the
application or implementation of the
Act of the Union.
(e) The Commission
The Commission of the Union will
be the Secretariat of the Union. It
will comprise a chairperson, deputy
chairperson/s and commissioners.
(f) Permanent Representative
Committee
The committee will comprise
permanent representatives to the
Union.
(g) Economic, Social and Cultural
Council
The Council will be an advisory
organ of the Union. It will comprise
social and professional groups of the
member states of the Union.
(h) Financial Institutions
These will include; The African
Central Bank, The African Monetary
Fund, The African Investment Bank.
The headquarters of the African Union
is in Addis Ababa in the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
(i) The Specialised Technical
Committes
It comprises several Specialised
Technical Committees that are
answerable to the Executive Council.
The Assembly can restructure the
existing committees or establish others
whenever it sees it appropriate to do
so.
The Specialised Technical Committees
shall be composed of ministers or
senior ofcials responsible for sectors
falling within their respective areas of
competence.
East African Community
(EAC)
Formation
The East African Community was an
economic and social co-operation
between Kenya, Uganda and
Tanzania. The first significant step
towards economic union in East
Africa was taken in 1948 with the
formation of the East African High
Commission (EAHC). The aim of
EAHC was to maintain a common
market for the three countries and
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to provide common services such
as air and rail transport as well as
telecommunication services.
In 1961, the EAHC was replaced by
the East African Common Services
Organisation (EACSO) whose
headquarters were in Nairobi. The
organisation had regional ofces in
Kampala and Dar-es-Salaam. The
affairs of the organisation were run
by a common authority comprising
heads of state of the three countries.
The operation of the organisation was,
however, hampered by a problem
arising from unequal benets which
were paid to member countries.
Uganda and Tanzania felt that Kenya
dominated commerce in the region
and thus benefited more from the
co-operation. Measures such as the
imposition of quotas on imports from
Kenya were introduced but this did
not solve the problem.
A commission headed by Professor
Kjeld Philip, a United Nations expert,
was appointed to look for a better
basis on which a common market
could be built. This culminated in
the signing of the Treaty for East
African Co-operation by Presidents
Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Milton
Obote (Uganda), and Julius Nyerere
(Tanzania), on 6
th
June 1967. The treaty
came into effect on 1
st
December 1967.
The main objectives of the East African
Community were:
(i) To promote trade between the three
East African countries by providing
a wider and more secure market
for goods produced in the region.
Member states were encouraged
to produce only those agricultural
commodities that they were better
suited to produce. Small scale
production of commercial products
in countries that were not suitable
for such products was discouraged.
It was hoped that these measures
would enhance economic self
sufficiency, self reliance and
economic independence from the
rest of the world.
(ii) To facilitate the movement of
goods from one member country
to another through a common
tariff system.
(iii)
To provide common services
such as railways, harbours, posts
and telecommunications and
airways. Several corporations
were established to provide these
services, for example;
(a) East African Railways
Corporation.
(b) East African Airways.
(c) East African Harbours
Corporation.
(d) East African Development
Bank.
(e) East African Examination
Council.
(f) East African Literature Bureau.
(i) East African Railways
Corporation
Nairobi
(ii) East African Airways Nairobi
(iii) East African Harbours
Corporation
Dar-es-Salaam
(iv) East African
Development Bank
Kampala
(v) East African Posts and
Telecommunications
Kampala
Table 3.2: The headquarters of EAC services.
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72
common market, planning, research
and social councils. The Secretariat
was based at Arusha, Tanzania.
(d) The Common Market
Tribunal
The tribunal settled disputes between
member states.
(e) The Court of Appeal
The Court of Appeal for East Africa was
established in 1951 to hear appeals from
the courts in the three member states.
The administrative headquarters of the
EAC was in Arusha, Tanzania. Each
member state hosted the headquarters
of at least two of the common services,
for example:
Organisation
The East African Authority
The three Presidents
East African Legislative Assembly
three East African Ministers
three Deputy Ministers
one Secretary-General
twenty-seven members
(nine from each state)
Administration (in Arusha)
Secretary-General and Staff
Five councils, each contained the three East Africa Ministers
together with one Minister from each of the three member states:
Common Market Communications
Economic
Consultation and
Planning
Finance
Research
and Social
Councils
Fig. 3.6: A chart structure showing the organs of the East African Community.
The chart below shows the main organs of the East African Community.
(a) The East African Authority
This was the community’s supreme
organ and it comprised the three heads
of state from the region. The chairing
of the authority was on a rotational
basis, thus each head of state had the
opportunity to chair the authority.
(b) The East African Legislative
Assembly
The Assembly comprised three
ministers and three deputy ministers,
twenty-seven members (nine from
each state), and a Secretary General.
The Assembly made laws to govern
the common services which were
offered by the community.
(c) The Secretariat
The Secretariat co-ordinated the work
of the councils that ran the community,
for example, nance, communication,
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74
Challenges up to 1977
The EAC was in existence upto
1977. A combination of challenges
contributed to its collapse. These were;
(i) The dominance of Kenya’s
economy over that of both
Uganda and Tanzania caused
friction and reluctance to lower
barriers to free trade. Kenya had
emerged from colonialism as a
more economically developed
state than her two neighbours.
She was more industrialised and
this placed her at an advantage.
Throughout the existence of the
EAC, they complained that Kenya
was benefiting more from the
co-operation. This dissatisfaction
created friction and adversely
affected the operations of the
community.
(ii) There were differences in policy
and in ideology between the
three states. Since 1965 Kenya had
favoured African Socialism which
encouraged social development
but not nationalisation of economic
resources and enterprises. Tanzania
had early in 1967 introduced the
Arusha Declaration and went on
to nationalise many companies.
Uganda adopted a similar policy,
The Common Man’s Charter which
was socialist-oriented, in 1969. Its
provisions were, however, never
implemented because Milton
Obote was removed from power
by Idi Amin Dada in a coup
d’etat (1971). After that Uganda,
like Kenya, pursued a capitalist
system.
Fig. 3.7: Army patrolling Kampala, Uganda
after 1971 coup.
(iii)Personal differences between
the heads of state affected the
organisation. The rise of Idi Amin
to power in Uganda affected
relations between Uganda and
Tanzania. Nyerere refused to
recognise Amin as president of
Uganda and was unwilling to
participate in the same meetings
with him. Kenya’s position on
the issue was that she does
not recognise personalities but
governments. The issue made the
operations of the community very
difcult. According to the charter
of the EAC, all decisions had to be
ratied by the three heads of state
at a meeting by a unanimous vote.
This could not be done.
(iv) The influx of refugees from
Uganda into Kenya and Tanzania
during Idi Amin’s rule further
strained relations between them
and Uganda.
Uganda began to accuse both
countries of supporting some
of the refugees to destabilise
the Ugandan government. This
heightened tension between the
three countries.
(v) National interests tended to
supercede those of the EAC and
therefore, whenever there was
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74
a conflict of interests, national
interests were prioritised.
Fig. 3.8: Idi Amin expelled Asians from
Uganda.
(vi)Political instability in Uganda also
affected the operations of the EAC.
After Idi Amin came to power in
January 1971, no further meetings
of the heads of state were held.
Uganda’s economy collapsed due
to Amin’s policy of expulsion of
Asians from the country and the
seizure of their properties. In a bid
to arrest the situation, he ordered
the printing of more currency. This
made the situation worse as it led
to a rise in the rates of ination.
Uganda could thus no longer
honour her nancial obligations
to the EAC.
(vii) The inability to transfer
foreign exchange currency
freely discouraged inter-state
transactions in goods.
(viii)
A clear and agreed pattern of
industrial specialisation failed
to materialise. In addition, the
Development Bank was unable to
initiate complementary industrial
investment. Various services had
become national rather than
community responsibilities by
1977. Tanzania’s closure of her
common border with Kenya,
and Kenya’s subsequent formal
withdrawal from the EAC on 30
th
June 1977 led to its collapse.
Re-birth of the East
African Community –
2001
Formation
The East African Community was
re-established in 1996. The treaty
for the re-establishment of the East
African Community was signed on
30
th
November 1999. The signatories
were the heads of states of the three
countries; Daniel arap Moi (Kenya),
Benjamin Mkapa (Tanzania) and
Yoweri Kaguta Museveni (Uganda).
The treaty became effective on 7
th
July 2000 after its ratication by the
member states. On 15
th
January 2001
the inauguration of the EAC was
conducted in Arusha, Tanzania.
Objectives of the EAC
(i) To develop policies that will foster
co-operation among the partner
states in social, economic, political
and cultural areas.
(ii) To establish a customs union,
a common market, a monetary
Union and eventually a political
federation.
(iii)To promote a steady and peaceful
development of the partner states.
(iv)To enhance the role of women in
social, economic, political, cultural
and technological development.
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76
Fig. 3.9: Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, Daniel arap Moi and
Benjamin Mkapa at the signing of the EAC treaty.
(v) To promote peace and
security within as well as good
neighbourliness among partner
states.
(vi) To enhance and strengthen co-
operation between the private
sector and the civil society in
order to achieve sustainable
socio-economic and political
development.
Principles of the EAC
(i) Mutual trust, political will and
sovereign equality
(ii) Peaceful co-existence and good
neighbourliness.
(iii)Peaceful settlement of disputes.
(iv) Good governance
(v) Equitable distribution of benets.
(vi) Co-operation for mutual benet.
Organisation
The main organs of the Community
are:
The Summit
The Summit comprises the Heads of
State and Government of the partner
states. The Summit gives guidance
to the Community and its decisions
are by consensus. Meetings of the
Summit are held at least
once a year. It is the
decision making body of
the organisation.
The Council
The Council comprises
ministers responsible
for regional co-operation
of each partner state.
The Council makes
policy decisions of the
Community and meets
twice a year or when the
need arises.
The Co-ordination Committee
The Co-ordination Committee
comprises the Permanent Secretaries
responsible for regional co-operation
in each partner state. The committee
implements decisions of the Council.
It meets twice a year.
Sectoral Committees
The Sectoral Committees are set up
upon recommendation by the Co-
ordination Committee to the Council.
The Co-ordination Committee also
determines the composition and
functions of each Sectoral Committee.
Each committee implements
programmes within its jurisdiction.
The Sectoral Committees meet
regularly to ensure that they discharge
their functions.
The East African Court of Justice
The court ensures that law is followed
in the interpretation and application
of the Treaty. The court comprises
a maximum of six judges who are
appointed by the Summit from among
persons recommended by the partner
states.
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76
The East African Legislative
Assembly
The East African Legislative Assembly
is the legislative organ of the
Community. It comprises 27 elected
members and ve ex-ofcio members.
There are nine elected members from
each partner state. The ex-officio
members comprise:
(a) Ministers responsible for regional
co-operation from each partner
state.
(b) Secretary General to the
Community
(c) Counsel (legal adviser) to the
Community.
Members of the Legislative Assembly
hold ofce for ve years and are eligible
for re-election for another five-year
term.
The Secretariat
The Secretariat is the chief administrative
organ of the Community. It is headed
by a Secretary General who is elected
by the Summit for a ve-year period.
The Secretariat co-ordinates the work
of the Community.
Performance and Challenges
The EAC has managed to do the
following since its inception:
(i) In 1997 an East African passport was
launched to facilitate the movement
of people from one country to
another.
(ii) Tariffs have been zero-rated for
those products that are locally
produced in the region.
(iii)Efforts are being made by the
security chiefs from the region
to improve security within and
across their borders, for example,
by curbing cattle rustling and
other criminal activities. The
police chiefs have held several
consultative meetings to address
this issue.
Though it has achieved some of its
objectives the organisation has faced
the following challenges.
(i) Crime across the borders, continues
to be a major cause of concern for
the partner states.
(ii) Poor transport and communication
network also interferes with trade
across the borders.
(iii)The lack of a common currency has
hampered transactions.
(iv)The free movement of people
across the borders has been
interfered with by lack of identity
documents. The regional passport
that was introduced has only
been acquired by a few people.
By October 2004, the passport had
only been issued to 40,000 people;
20,000 Tanzanians, 10,000 Kenyans
and 10,000 Ugandans.
Economic Community
of West African States
(ECOWAS)
Formation
The Economic Community of West
African States(ECOWAS) came into
being on 28
th
May 1975 when the
Treaty of Lagos was signed by 15 West
African states. In 1977, membership
increased to 16 when Cape Verde
joined the organisation. The member
states of ECOWAS are as shown:
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78
Fig. 3.10: ECOWAS trade region.
Government of the member states.
The Authority meets once a year.
Chairmanship of the authority is
rotational.
(b) Council of Ministers
This is the second highest policy
organ. It makes policy decisions on
the programmes and activities of
ECOWAS. The Council comprises
ministers who are responsible for
regional co-operation from the
member states.
(c) The Tribunal
The Tribunal interprets the Treaty
governing ECOWAS and settles
disputes that may occur between
member states.
Aims for formation
(i) To foster co-operation among
the member states in such
areas as industry, transport and
communication, agriculture and
commerce, among others.
(ii) To facilitate the free movement of
goods in the region through the
removal of trade barriers.
(iii)To achieve economic development
for the member states.
(iv) To develop agriculture, commerce
and industry as well as other
sectors of the economy.
(v) To uplift the standard of living of
the people in the region.
Organisation
The main organs of ECOWAS are;
(a) The Authority
This is the supreme policy organ. It
comprises the Heads of State and
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78
(d) The Executive Secretariat
The Executive Secretariat is the chief
administrative organ of ECOWAS. It
is headed by a Secretary General who
is appointed for a four-year period.
The headquarters of the Secretariat is
in Lagos, Nigeria.
Specialised Commissions
ECOWAS has four specialised
commissions. These are; Commission
on:
(a) Transport, communication and
energy
(b) Industry, agriculture and natural
resources
(c) Trade, customs, tariffs,
immigration and monetary affairs.
(d) Social and cultural affairs
Performance
(i) ECOWAS has helped in the
promotion of peace in the region.
In 1981, ECOWAS adopted the
Defence Act through which member
states agreed to assist each other in
the event of an attack by an outside
force. They set up the ECOMOG
force which has since helped to
restore peace in countries torn by
civil strife, for example, Liberia
and Sierra Leone.
(ii) Meetings of the H eads of S tate
and G overnment have been held
regularly to discuss the problems
facing the region and to chart out
the way forward.
(iii)Practical steps have been taken to
diversify and to generally improve
agriculture and communication in
the region.
(iv) Member states have benefited
from trade in the region. They, for
example, buy oil from Nigeria at
reduced prices.
(v) There has been socio-cultural
exchanges among the member
states. These have helped to
promote friendly relations among
the people in the region.
Challenges
(i) Member states give priority to their
own domestic interests.
(ii) Many ECOWAS states have
experienced political instability.
Ghana and Nigeria, for example,
have had many military coups
since attaining independence.
Burkina Faso, Liberia and Sierra
Leone have had internal problems
too. Civil war in Liberia forced
intervention of ECOWAS which
sent a peace keeping force to
the country in 1990-1991. These
problems have interrupted the
smooth running of ECOWAS.
(iii) New leaders come with different
interests and ideologies that may
not necessarily be in support of
on-going agreements.
(iv) In some cases delay in remitting
of funds for the budget of the
organisation’s secretariat has
been caused by these frequent
and violent political changes.
The current political instability in
Liberia is a good example of how
politics affects regional economic
organisations.
(v) The region is poorly linked by
transport and communication
systems and this creates problems
which interfere with the smooth
running of the organisation.
(vi) The linguistic barrier between
English and French speaking states
has hampered efcient operations.
(vii) ECOWAS has to compete for
loyalty and commitment with
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80
and in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in June
1960. During these conferences, the
economic problems facing independent
African states were discussed. It was
resolved that the African states that
had achieved political independence
would strive to promote economic co-
operation among themselves through
the formation of sub-regional economic
blocs.
Based on this, the United Nations
Economic Commission for Africa
(ECA), proposed that Africa be divided
into four sub-regions:
(a) Eastern and Southern
(b) Central
(c) West
(d) North
It was hoped that these regional
economic communities would
constitute building blocs upon which
an African Economic Community
would ultimately be erected.
In October 1965, the ECA convened
a ministerial meeting of the then
politically independent states of
eastern and southern Africa to consider
proposals for the promotion of sub-
regional economic integration. The
meeting, which was held in Lusaka,
Zambia, recommended the creation of
an Economic Community of Eastern
and Southern African states. An interim
council of ministers, assisted by an
interim economic committee of ofcials,
was subsequently set up to negotiate
the treaty and initiate programmes on
economic co-operation, pending the
completion of negotiations on the treaty.
The treaty establishing the Preferential
Trade Area for Eastern and Southern
Africa (PTA) was signed in December,
1981.
other organisations, for example,
the Commonwealth.
(viii) There exists mutual suspicion
among the member states over
the different levels of economic
development. The influx of
workers from the less developed
states to the more developed
ones has in the past caused
resentment from the nationals
of the developed states. In 1983,
for example, Nigeria was forced
to expel Ghanaians and other
foreign workers.
(ix) The different currencies of the
member states tend to fluctuate
against major currencies such as the
US dollar and the Sterling pound.
This creates problems of rates of
exchange and therefore hinders
trade among member states.
(x)
The debt service burden of
ECOWAS keeps rising alarmingly.
In 1989, for example, it rose from
US$4.6 billion to US$ 8.6 billion
in 1990. Unless donor nations and
agencies such as the IMF and the
World Bank cancel this huge debt,
the operations of ECOWAS may
stagnate.
Common Market for
Eastern and Southern Africa
(COMESA)
Formation
COMESA was established in 1994 to
replace the Preferential Trade Area for
Eastern and Southern Africa (PTA),
which had been in existence since
1981. The PTA and COMESA owe
their origins to the conferences of
independent African states which were
held in Accra, Ghana, in April 1958,
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80
Fig. 3.11: COMESAS trade region.
Organisation
The COMESA Treaty established
ve main institutions or organs to
help promote its aims and objectives.
These are:
(a) The Authority
This is the supreme policy making
organ and is made up of Heads of State
and Government of member countries.
It is responsible for the general policy,
direction and control of the performance
of the common market.
(b) Council of Ministers
This is the second highest policy organ.
It monitors and keeps under constant
review the proper functioning and
development of the common market.
It makes policy decisions on the
programmes and activities of COMESA.
In November 1993, the PTA was
transformed into COMESA by a treaty
signed in Kampala, Uganda. The
COMESA Treaty came into force in
December, 1994 in Lilongwe, Malawi
after it was ratified by twelve (12)
countries.
The current members of COMESA are:
Angola Ethiopia
Burundi Kenya
Comoros Madagascar
Djibouti Democratic Republic
of Congo
Malawi Mauritius
Egypt Namibia
Eritrea Rwanda
Seychelles Sudan
Swaziland Uganda
Zambia Zimbabwe
Table 3.3: The COMESA membership.
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82
(c) Inter-governmental Committee
This is composed of permanent
secretaries from the member states
responsible for the development and
management of programmes and
action plans in all the sectors of co-
operation except the nance sector.
(d) Court of Justice
This is the judicial organ of
COMESA. The court ensures proper
interpretation and application of
the provisions of the Treaty. It also
adjudicates any dispute that may arise
among member states regarding the
interpretation and application of the
provisions of the Treaty.
(e) The Secretariat
This is based in Lusaka, Zambia and
is charged with providing technical
support and advisory services to
the member states. The Secretariat is
headed by a Secretary General who
is appointed by the Authority. He or
she serves for a ve year period and
can be re-appointed for another term
of ve years.
The other organs of COMESA are:
(a) Committee of Governors of Central
Banks
(b) Technical Committee
(c) Consultative Committee
Functions
Functions of the technical committee are:
(i) To promote and facilitate co-
operation of the member states in
aspects such as agriculture, energy,
finance and monetary affairs,
industry, natural resources and
environment trade and customs
transport and communication,
tourism and wildlife among
others.
(ii) To foster good relations, peace and
stability within the region.
(iii) To promote co-operation in
monetary and nancial affairs in
order to facilitate sub-regional
integration.
(iv)To establish joint industrial and
agricultural institutions with the
aim of increasing the sub-region’s
production capacity and thus raise
the standard of living of the people
in the region.
(v) To contribute towards the
establishment, progress and the
realisation of the objectives of the
African Economic Community.
Performance
(i) COMESA has established a free
trade area and some member
states have already removed trade
barriers.
(ii) COMESA has established
close relationships with major
development partners. These
include the International Monetary
Fund (IMF), the World Bank,
the European Union, United
States Agency for International
Development (USAID) and the
African Central Bank. COMESA
is currently receiving about 50
million US dollars for programme
implementation from the
international community.
(iii) COMESA has already adopted the
protocol on the Free Movement
of Persons, Labour Services and
the Right of Establishment and
Residence.
(iv) In 1998 the COMESA Court of
Justice was established at the
Secretariat. The court ensures
the proper interpretation and
application of the provisions of the
COMESA Treaty.
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82
(v) In 1998, the COMESA
Telecommunications Company
(COMTEL) was launched. It was
to facilitate the integration of the
telecommunications network in the
region.
(vi) COMESA has encouraged
industrialisation through regular
trade fairs.
(vii) COMESA has already acquired
new headquarters in Lusaka,
Zambiawhich has led to
employment opportunities.
Fig. 3.12: A COMESA trade fair.
Challenges
(i) Trade between COMESA countries
has not been growing as envisaged.
However, a number of measures
have been put in place in order
to improve the situation. These
include regular exhibitions and
trade fairs.
(ii) COMESA lacks adequate support
from member states. Even though
it was agreed in 1999 that all
member states should reduce their
tariffs, only a few have complied.
(iii)Poor and sometimes lack of
infrastructure hinders commerce
due to delays in the transportation
of goods.
(iv) Most COMESA countries produce
the same commodities. This
reduces commercial exchanges
among member states.
(v) The commodities that are available
for trade are usually unprocessed
and are sold abroad. This reduces
local exchanges.
(vi) Boundary conicts and civil under
wars have undermined COMESA’s
activities.
(vii) Stiff competition from external
players pose a challenge. For
example south Africa poses a big
challenge due to her advanced
industrial sector.
(viii) Withdrawal of some member
countries such as Tanzania and
Namibia from the organisation.
PB
84
Activities
1. Organise a group discussion on the effects of the Pan-Africanist Movement
on Africa.
2. Hold a debate on the topic. “The OAU was a failure.”
3. In groups prepare a class presentation on:
(a) The objectives of the African Union as outlined in the Charter.
(b) The challenges facing the EAC to date.
(c) The challenges facing ECOWAS.
Exercise
1. State the aims of Pan-Africanism.
2. Analyse the performance of Pan-Africanism.
3. What were the objectives of the OAU at its formation?
4. Outline the challenges the OAU has faced.
5. Identify the principles of the African Union.
6. State the objectives of the East African Community.
7. Explain the challenges the EAC faced up to 1977.
8. Describe the structure and organisation of ECOWAS.
9. State the functions of COMESA.
85
PB
A national philosophy refers to a
system of ideological beliefs and
values brought about by the ruling
party and which has been widely
accepted by the citizens.
At independence, the country lacked
the necessary capital for undertaking
major development projects that the
nationalist leaders had promised
the people during the struggle for
independence. Independence was
therefore a big challenge both to the
nationalists who assumed political
power and to the rest of the Kenyans
who wanted to develop their country
and their individual lives.
This is because during the colonial
period Africans in Kenya were
subjected to exploitative economic
measures such as forced labour,
taxation, low wages and land
alienation among others.
To arrest this situation, it was necessary
for the leaders of independent Kenya
to come up with policies that would
bring rapid socio-economic and political
developments.
This chapter deals with philosophies
and strategies that Kenyan leaders
devised in their endeavour to
achieve socio-economic and political
development. These are; African
Socialism, Harambee and Nyayoism.
African Socialism
Origin and development
African Socialism is a social political
and economic system that is free
from inuence from either capitalist
west or communist east. The
principles of African Socialism are
derived from those practices and
values that were held in traditional
African communities before the
start of European colonialism.
African Socialism also embraces
virtues which are considered desirable
and useful from both capitalism and
communism.
African Socialism was adopted as a
development strategy in Kenya in
order to:
(i) Create a society which was free
from political oppression, social
economic inequalities, racism
and other discriminative practices.
(ii) Create a united and free Kenya
where the rights and freedoms of the
individuals would be guaranteed,
that is, a democratic society.
(iii)Create a just and humane society
that would guarantee equality of
all before the law and in which
the traditional practices of mutual
social responsibility, equitable
distribution of resources and the
freedom to own property would
be guaranteed.
Unit
4
NATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES (KENYA)
87
86
These principles are contained in a
policy document called Sessional
Paper No. 10 of 1965 entitled “African
Socialism and its Application to Planning
in Kenya”.
The main features of African Socialism
as spelt in the paper were:
(i) Political democracy that is,
participation in the process of
governance.
(ii) Mutual social responsibility. In
the paper it is explained that
‘mutual’ social responsibility is
an extension of the African family
spirit to the nation as a whole, with
the hope that ultimately the same
spirit can be extended to even
larger areas. It implies a mutual
responsibility by society and its
members to do their very best for
each other with the full knowledge
and understanding that if society
prospers, its members will share
in that prosperity. Society can
not prosper without the full co-
operation of its members.
(iii) Various forms of property
ownership. Which include:
a) Free enterprise which
allowed private ownership
of property.
(b) Public ownership or
nationalisation where the
state owns and controls key
industries.
(c) Partnership where
enterprises are jointly owned
by the state and private
enterprises.
(iv) Equality of opportunity. This
implies that the state has an
obligation to ensure equal
opportunities to all citizens. The
state must therefore eliminate
exploitation and discrimination
and provide the needed social
services such as education,
medical care and social security.
(v) Progressive taxation to narrow
the gap between the rich and the
poor, thus, the wealthier members
of society would pay higher taxes.
The paper further afrmed the need
for Kenya to operate a mixed economy
in which the government would
control basic services such as roads,
railways, airways and postas and
telecommunications.
The paper also underscored the
importance of private investment
though foreign investors were
cautioned about the need to accept the
spirit of mutual social responsibility.
They were expected to allow Africans
to buy shares in their companies
and to employ qualied Africans in
management positions.
In the preface to the paper, the late
Mzee Jomo Kenyatta explained that
his government’s economic approach
would be dominated by the desire to
ensure Africanisation of the economy
and the public service. He further
emphasised the need to achieve the
above goals without causing any harm
to the economy.
Harambee
Origin and development
‘Harambee’, which means “lets pull
together”, is basically a call for hard
work in the challenging task of nation
building. Harambee formed the basis
of economic development during the
pre-colonial as well as the colonial
periods. It was practised at different
social levels to perform tasks that
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86
required group work for the benet of
the community, for example, clearing
land for cultivation, road and bridge
construction.
At independence, Kenya was faced
with three major problems. These were
poverty, disease and ignorance. The
country was also underdeveloped
and lacked adequate capital for
development. Thus there was need
for Kenyans to be encouraged to work
together by pooling their financial
resources and providing labour on
common basis. The late Mzee Jomo
Kenyatta, the rst President of Kenya,
gave Harambee a strong backing. He
impressed upon Kenyans the need
to use Harambee for social economic
development.
In his address to the nation on
independence day, Kenyatta stated,
“Fellow countrymen, many people may
think that, now that there is Uhuru.....,
riches will pour down like manna from
heaven. I tell you there will be nothing
like heaven. We must all work hard, with
our hands, to save ourselves from poverty,
ignorance and disease....
You and I must work together to develop
our country to get education for our
children, to have doctors, to build roads,
to improve or provide all the day-to-day
essentials. This should be our work, in the
spirit that I am going to ask you to echo,
to shout aloud, to shatter the foundation
of the past with the strength of our new
purpose... HARAMBEE!”.
This, in practice, meant that every
Kenyan was expected to contribute
in terms of labour or money to a
development project either in the
immediate community or elsewhere
in the country. Harambee, thus, is a cost
sharing development strategy.
Role of Harambee in nation
building
1. The Harambee Philosophy has
encouraged self-reliance. With the
philosophy encouraging people
to come together in national
development, reliance on the
government for help has reduced.
2. Many schools were built through
Harambee hence promoting the
education sector.
3. It has promoted national unity
since people with divergent
political alienations and different
beliefs have been involved in
Harambee projects.
4. The Harambee Philosophy has led
to the construction of hospitals and
dispensaries hence enhancing the
health sector.
5. In the spirit of mutual social
responsibility, needs of the
vulnerable groups were addressed.
6. The Harambee Philosophy has
led to improved infrastructure.
Many roads and bridges have been
constructed through communal
participation.
7. Religion has been promoted in the
country. Through the Harambee
spirit many churches and mosques
have been constructed.
8. Agriculture has also been
promoted through the Harambee
spirit. This has been achieved
through the construction of cattle
dips.
9. The Cooperative Society in Kenya
which encourages savings as
a pool has its origins from the
Harambee Philosophy.
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88
Nyayoism
Origin and development
‘Nyayoism,’ is derived from the word
‘Nyayo’ which in Kiswahili means
‘footsteps’. On ascending to the
presidency in 1978, Daniel Toroitich
Arap Moi assured Kenyans that
he would follow the policies of his
predecessor, the late Mzee Jomo
Kenyatta. This in essence meant
that both African Socialism and
Harambee would continue to be the
guiding principles to achieve national
development. The task of national
development required an environment
of love, peace and unity and thus these
three concepts became the pillars of his
development philosophy.
Nyayoism has since been used to mean
love, peace and unity guided by the
need for everybody to be mindful of
the welfare of others. The idea of being
mindful of other people’s welfare
is closely related to the principle
of mutual social responsibility as
embodied in African Socialism. It
means that the people must respect
each other and not discriminate on the
basis of colour, religious convictions or
socio-economic backgrounds.
Daniel arap Moi, in his book, “Kenya
African Nationalism”, explained the
Nyayo Philosophy as follows:
“Peace, love and unity are not vague
philosophies. They are the practical
foundations of country-wide development.
Where there is peace then there is stability
and only in the arena of stability will
you find investments, enterprises and
progress.”
Impact of national
Philosophies
Impact of African Socialism
Kenya has achieved a lot through
African Socialism. The country has
experienced expansion in agriculture
and in the provision of both medical
and educational services. The
rural areas have been developed
considerably through the Harambee
spirit which in essence is African
Socialism in practice.
Impact of Harambee
Philosophy
(i) Harambee has contributed to the
growth of education in the country.
At independence, there were a
few schools and the government
lacked sufcient funds to build
more.
Fig. 4.1: Former president Daniel arap Moi
helping to raise funds for construction of schools
through Harambee.
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88
Communities were thus
encouraged to build Harambee
schools and to construct additional
classrooms in existing schools.
Many students have also beneted
from Harambee donations and
contributions to enable them
pursue education abroad. Others
have been educated locally
through bursary funds raised
through Harambee.
(ii) It also led to the expansion of
education at all levels and the
construction of boarding facilities in
the already existing girls’ secondary
schools throughout the country. The
boarding facilities have helped to
create a conducive atmosphere for
girls. Girls performance in national
examinations has thus improved.
(iii) Social amenities such as hospitals,
health centres and places of
worship have been constructed
through Harambee.
(iv) The welfare of the less fortunate
members of the society has been
addressed through donations,
for example, Daniel arap Moi in
1988 set up a fund to assist the
disabled.
(v) Funds have been raised to assist
in the settlement of hospital bills
for individuals.
(vi) Communities have constructed
roads and bridges and installed
piped water and electricity
through Harambees.
(vii)
Soil conservation measures such as
tree planting and the construction
of gabions have been undertaken
through community participation
in the Harambee spirit.
(viii)
Harambee has also played a
unifying role in the country in
that contributions to a particular
harambee project are not conned
to the people who will benefit
directly. Rather, donations are
solicited from people from any
part of the country. These functions
thus bring together people
of different socio- economic,
ethnic and racial backgrounds
to work together for national
development.
(ix)
It also promotes the equitable
distribution of resources as the
wealthy are invited to participate
in H arambee projects in less
developed areas.
(x) Through Harambee the government
has reduced dependence on
foreign aid. Communities have
learnt to rely less on external
assistance. Rather they have
taken it upon themselves to
propose, initiate and implement
projects they need, with all
members of the community
contributing whatever they can
afford towards the project.
Fig. 4.2: Nyayo wards built to expand medical
services.
Despite the numerous achievements,
Harambee has been abused by a
few selsh individuals who have
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90
misappropriated funds raised
through harambee. In the past the
provincial administration has also
been accused of using force to get
funds for development projects of
their choice. These kind of abuses
have been the basis of criticism
against Harambee philosophy.
Impact of Nyayo Philosophy
(i) Nyayoism has led to the expansion
of medical services through the
construction of the Nyayo Wards
in various district and provincial
hospitals.
(ii) In the spirit of Nyayo philosophy
a fund to assist the disabled
persons in society was set in 1988.
(iii) By being mindful of other people’s
welfare, funds have been raised to
assist needy students and to pay
hospital bills for individuals.
(iv) The government established
Nyayo Tea Zones whose aim was
to facilitate the expansion of tea
cultivation on small farms. This
was possible due to the relative
peace and stability that existed
as a consequence of Nyayoism.
Subsequently factories to process
the tea were constructed and
infrastructure improved.
(v) Following the Nyayo philosophy
of peace, love and unity between
and among nations, Kenya has
hosted several peace talks between
warring factions in different
countries.
In 1985, Kenya hosted and chaired
peace talks between the military
government of Tito Okello and
the then guerilla leader Yoweri
Museveni in an effort to bring
peace in Uganda. Since then Kenya
has hosted and chaired peace talks
between the warring factions in
Sudan. These were peacefully
concluded in 2004. Consequently
a government of national unity
was formed in that country.
Kenya has similarly hosted
peace talks between the warring
factions in Somalia. They were
also peacefully concluded, and a
transitional parliament elected. On
10
th
October 2004, elections were
held for a transitional president.
Mr. Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed was
elected and sworn in as President
of Somalia.
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90
Activities
1. Organise a group discussion on the aims of African Socialism.
2. Hold a debate on advantages and disadvantages of Harambee.
3. Hold a class discussion on the achievements of;
(a) African Socialism
(b) Nyayoism
Exercise
1. Explain the origin of “African Socialism.”
2. Identify the main features of African Socialism.
3. Explain the origin and development of Harambee.
4. Analyse the impact of Harambee.
5. Discuss the impact Nyayoism.
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92
The period after independence
in Kenya witnessed critical and
profound developments in the social,
political and economic spheres.
Initially, political developments
revolved around the policies of the
leading political parties of the
time, the Kenya African National
Union (KANU) and (Kenya African
Democratic Party (KADU). They
each had a specic constitution and
unique ideological interests. These
were at times the breeding grounds for
conict and disharmony. There were
also differences within and across
parties which posed challenges to
national stability.
The independence government
in Kenya also designed specific
economic development strategies,
all geared towards improving the
living standards of the people. The
developments were in the areas of
land and industry.
The social developments specically
focused on education, health, culture
and sports. In all these areas of
development there were noticeable
challenges which this chapter will
attempt to capture and highlight.
Political developments from
1963-1991
Kenya became independent on 12
th
December, 1963 with Jomo Kenyatta
as Prime M inister. This was after
a long, bitter and violent struggle.
Since then, Kenya has undergone a
series of political developments and
challenges. The following are the
political developments that took place
between 1963 and 1991:
(i) Republican status
On 12th December 1964, Kenya
became an independent republic.
Jomo Kenyatta became Kenya’s
first president and Jaramogi
Oginga Odinga became the rst
Vice-president. The post of the
Prime Minister was abolished and
that of an Executive President was
established. The President became
head of state and government.
Fig. 5.1: The late Jomo Kenyatta became the rst
president of Kenya on 12
th
December 1964.
Unit
5
POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES
IN KENYA SINCE INDEPENDENCE
93
92
(ii)Disbanding of Kenya African
Democratic Party and African
People’s Party
At independence Kenya was a
multi-party state. However in
1964, KADU, the ofcial opposition
party dissolved itself and merged
with KANU. Kenya became a one
party state (de facto). This status
was maintained until 1982 when
a constitutional amendment made
Kenya a one party state by law
(de jure). This altered the initial
thinking at independence that
Kenya would be a multi-party
democracy. At that time the Kenya
African National Union (KANU),
Kenya African Democratic Party
(KADU) and the African Peoples
Party (APP) were the major political
parties. Jomo Kenyatta was not at
ease with this arrangement. Such
an arrangement would breed
ethnic, ideological and personality
conicts. Even within KANU it
became increasingly evident that
Jaramogi Oginga Odinga and
Bildad Kaggia were more radical
in their approach to political issues.
Jomo Kenyatta, Tom Mboya, James
Gichuru among others, tended
to favour a more moderate, non-
radical approach to politics.
By December 1964, KANU had
persuaded KADU to dissolve
itself and the Majimbo constitution
revoked in favour of a unitary
constitution. The leading KADU
politicians, Ronald Ngala, Masinde
Muliro, and Daniel Moi voluntarily
joined the ruling party KANU.
Paul Ngei followed suit and the
dissolved APP was accommodated
into the ranks of KANU.
(iii)
Formation of the Kenya
Peoples Union (KPU)
With the abolition of the Majimbo
constitution, the constitutional
amendments that followed bestowed
upon the President wide ranging
powers. They strengthened the
Executive which assumed absolute
control of the state. This became a
source of discontent within sections
of national leadership. There were
attempts by certain individuals
in government to strengthen
KANU over and above parliament.
Consequently KANU was headed
for a political showdown.
The hurriedly convened Limuru
Conference of 1966 brought
in amendments to the KANU
constitution creating eight vice
presidents of the party with each
of the provinces having a party
vice president. Jaramogi Oginga
Odinga was dissatised with this
arrangement and consequently
resigned from the government.
In March 1966, together with
Achieng’ Oneko, Bildad Kaggia,
Tom Okelo and Joseph Nthula
among others, he broke away from
KANU and formed the Kenya
Peoples Union (KPU).
Odinga’s resignation letter to
Kenyatta stated:
“You have not given any consideration to
me as your Number 2 in state matters. I
have a conscience and this in fact does prick
me when I earn public money but with
no job to do. I am worried lest the future
generations question my sincerity when
they would learn that I allowed myself to
hold a sinecure post in the midst of poverty
and misery in our country...”.
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The formation of KPU and the
breakaway of its members from
KANU led to another constitutional
amendment. The amendment
required any member of parliament
who resigned from the party that
sponsored him or her to parliament
to relinquish the parliamentary seat
and seek fresh mandate from the
electorate. The “Little General Election”
as it came to be known was held. Out
of the 29 seats that were vied for,
KPU won only seven seats. This was
followed by bitter political rivalries.
They culminated into riots at the
grounds of the Russian sponsored
New Nyanza General Hospital which
Jomo Kenyatta had ofcially gone to
open. A number of people were killed.
KPU was banned, and its leaders either
detained or put under house arrest.
In the same year general elections
were held and a single chamber of
parliament formed.
(iv)
Political assassinations
Pio Gama Pinto (1965)
In 1965, Pio Gama Pinto, a former
Mau Mau detainee and at that
time a Member of Parliament for
Parklands was assassinated. He
had been a strong critic of the
government. Pinto was gunned
down outside his house. The
motive behind his assassination
remains unresolved to date.
However the Kenyatta government
was not declared free from blame.
Fig. 5.4: Pio Gama Pinto was assassinated
in 1965.
Tom Joseph Mboya (1969)
On 5th July 1969, Tom Joseph
Mboya, then a Member of
Parliament for the then Bahati
constituency in Nairobi, and
Minister for Economic Planning and
Development, was assassinated in
Nairobi. The assassination angered
and shocked the entire nation. This
Fig. 5.5: Tom Mboya was assassinated in 1969.
• Josiah Mwangi Kariuki (1975)
On 2nd March 1975, Josiah Mwangi
Kariuki, popularly known as JM,
another outspoken critic of the
Jomo Kenyatta regime was found
murdered and his body dumped in
greatly eroded public condence
in the government.
Fig. 5.3: The Late Jaramogi Oginga Odinga
together with others formed KPU.
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94
Ngong forest. He was the M ember
of P arliament for Nyandarua
North. Kenyans were outraged by
Following JM’s death, a parliamentary
select committee under the
chairmanship of Elijah Mwangale
to probe this murder was formed.
Its report implicated prominent
public gures in government. This
not only caused public concern and
anxiety but further undermined their
condence in the regime. It threatened
the security and stability of the nation.
(v)
The Kenyatta succession
issue
The question of Kenyatta’s
succession, and the method to
be used to replace him had been
raised on several occasions due to
his advanced age. The issue was
rst discussed openly in 1976 and
later raised on several occasions.
Leaders, who included Dr. Njoroge
Mungai, Kihika Kimani, James
Gichuru, Paul Ngei, Jackson
Angaine and Njenga Karume
were of the opinion that the existing
constitution needed to be amended
to bar the automatic ascension of
the vice president to the position of
president in the event of the death
of President Kenyatta.
Fig. 5.7: The late James Gichuru was among
leaders who wanted the constitution amended
in 1976.
This move was seen as an attempt
by these politicians to bar Daniel
Arap Moi, the then vice-president
from succeeding Kenyatta. The
issue was settled in October 1976
when Charles Njonjo, the Attorney
General, reminded Kenyans that
it was a criminal offence for “any
Earlier in 1975, Kariuki had expressed
fear for his life. He had observed.
“My concern about the owners of property
has been misconstrued as rebellion against
the government, and I have been accused
of being controversial in matters affecting
my brothers and sisters who happen to be
less endowed with material wealth of the
world. If that is what controversy means,
this grisly death.
Fig. 5.6: J.M. Kariuki was killed in 1975.
I do not regret the accusation”.
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96
person to compass, imagine,
devise or intend the death of the
President”. This, therefore, among
the 14
th
October 1978, was sworn
in as the second President of the
Republic of Kenya. Daniel arap
Moi took over the power.
Fig. 5.8: Daniel arap Moi; took over power
after the death of Jomo Kenyatta.
(vii)
The banning of ethnic
organisations
In 1979, President Moi banned
all ethnic organisations in order
to enhance national unity. These
included the then powerful
Gikuyu, Embu, Meru Association
(GEMA), the New Akamba Union
(NAU), the Luo Union (East
other considerations contributed
to the peaceful transition.
(vi)
The death of Kenyatta
On 22
nd
August 1978, Jomo Kenyatta
passed on in Mombasa. President
Kenyatta’s death was a major test of
the political maturity of Kenyans.
It raised the issue of whether or not
Kenyans were capable of adhering
to the constitutional provisions
governing the replacement of
a president if the incumbent
vacates ofce for any reason. The
constitution stipulated that if such
a situation arose, the country’s
vice president automatically
succeeds and acts in that capacity
for a period not exceeding ninety
(90) days after which elections are
held to elect another president. After
Kenyatta’s death, on 22
nd
August
1978, the country’s constitution
was adhered to on the issue of
succession. Daniel arap Moi
assumed presidency and elections
were held within the ninety days
(90) requirement. He was elected
as the country’s president and on
Mijikenda Association. Though
these organisations were ideally
welfare organisations, some
were highly politicised. Also
banned were tribal names of social
organisations such as football clubs.
Thus, the Abaluyia Football Club
became AFC Leopards and the Luo
Union Football Club became the
Re-Union Football Club.
(viii)
The 1982 coup attempt
In 1982, the Moi government was
faced with an attempted coup
spearheaded by the members of
the Kenya Airforce. On 1st August
Africa), the Abaluyia Association,
Kalenjin Association and the
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96
Fig. 5.10: Mlolongo system; people queue behind
a candidate’s photograph.
1982, junior ofcers of the Kenya
Air Force attempted to overthrow
the government. They held power
for about four hours before they
were defeated by the loyal army
personnel. During the disturbances,
a number of people were killed and
many businesses were looted. The
event was a test to Kenya’s political
stability. All those suspected to
have been anti-government were
systematically rounded up and
tried court.
(ix) The traitor affair
In May 1983, President Moi revealed
a plot to overthrow the government
by a powerful cabinet minister
in what came to be christened
the Traitor Affair. The traitor
was identified as Charles
Njonjo, the country’s Minister for
Constitutional and Home Affairs.
A commission of inquiry under
Justice Chunilal E. Madan and
Justice Mrs. Effie Owuor was
set-up. The assisting counsel was
Lee Muthoga while Njonjo was
represented by lawyer Deverell
and Paul Muite. Njonjo was found
guilty of all allegations except the
crucial one, treason. In a surprise
turn of events Moi pardoned
Njonjo during his Jamhuri Day
speech in 1984.
(x)
Mlolongo voting system
The 1988 General Elections saw
the introduction of a queuing
system of voting (Mlolongo) in
Presidential, Parliamentary and
Civic Elections. The voters were
required to queue behind the
candidate of their choice or the
candidate’s photograph.
Supporters were then physically
counted to determine the winner.
The system, it was argued, enabled
illiterate voters to identify their
candidates.
This system was criticised as it
disenfranchised certain categories
of Kenyan citizens who could not
participate freely due to fear of being
publicly identied with a particular
candidate. These included; the
clergy, the armed forces and civil
servants. There was vote rigging
which saw candidates with longer
queues loosing. They cried foul
play. This laid the foundation for
multi-partism.
(xi) The death of Dr. Robert Ouko
In February 1990, Dr. Robert Ouko,
Fig. 5.9: Charles Njonjo.
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98
status.
A number of women were
appointed assistant ministers,
permanent secretaries and senior
provincial administrators.
In 1987, Margaret Githinji was
appointed Permanent Secretary
for commerce. Others have since
served as Permanent Secretaries,
for example, Dr. Sally Kosgei and
Margaret Chemingich. Dr. Sally
Kosgei was the S ecretary to the
the Minister for Foreign Affairs and
International Co-operation died
under mysterious circumstances.
His charred remains were found
by a herdsman at Got Alila, a few
kilometres from his Kisumu rural
home.
His death shocked Kenyans and
the international community. A
commission chaired by Justice
Gicheru was set up to probe the
circumstances leading to his death.
The commission did not
complete the investigations as
it was disbanded. In 2004, a
parliamentary committee was set-
up to try and unravel the mystery
surrounding Dr. Ouko’s death. A
number of leading personalities of
the Moi administration appeared
on the list of those suspected to
have schemed or executed the
murder of Dr. Robert Ouko.
(xii)
Enhanced status of women
The status of women in Kenya’s
political arena has been enhanced.
For example, Nyiva Mwendwa
was appointed to the cabinet,
being the rst woman to attain that
Cabinet and the Head of the Civil
Service. Women have also been
appointed to head parastatal
organisations and as judges of the
Court of Appeal and of the High
Court of Kenya.
(xiii)
Multipartism
The period after 1990 witnessed
increased demands for plural
politics. There were calls for people
participation in governance.
In December 1991, section 2(A) of
the Kenyan constitution that made
Kenya a de jure (one party state)
was repealed. Kenya reverted to a
multi-party state by law.
Fig.5.11: Dr. Robert Ouko who died in 1990.
Fig. 5.12: Nyiva Mwendwa; the rst woman
to be appointed to the cabinet.
99
98
Multi-party democracy in
Kenya
Multi-partism or pluralism is a
system of governance that involves
participation of a number of political
associations. A number of factors led
to the development of multi-party
democracy in Kenya. These factors
included:
(i) International pressure on
the Kenyan government for
democratic reforms
The end of the Cold War and the
collapse of the USSR led to a focus
on undemocratic governance
in various countries, Kenya
included. The United Nations,
World Bank, the International
Monetary Fund and the European
Union, among others, were now
clearly indicating that nancing
of various government projects
would be tied to good governance
and respect for human rights. The
undemocratic KANU regime had
no alternative but to yield to this
pressure. Hence the repealing of
section 2 (A) of the constitution.
(ii)Unpopular KANU policies and
it’s insensitivity to criticism
Prior to 1991, KANU was the only
legally recognised political party.
Those who held divergent views
were stigmatised while others were
grilled by the party disciplinary
committee, suspended and at times
expelled from the party altogether.
They had no other party to go to
and were left in the political cold.
They went to join the ranks of other
dissidents opposed to KANU
policies and the one-party system
of government.
Leading politicians who had been
expelled from KANU through the
unpopular decisions of KANU
leadership had to seek political
alternatives elsewhere. They had
to form other political parties. For
example Masinde Muliro remarked
“Having been pushed out of the
house, we have no alternative but to
construct our own. We should not
stand in vain looking helpless.”
(iii)
Saba Saba Riots, 7th July 1990
There were people who were ready
to push the democratic agenda
ahead.
KANU viewed any constructive
criticism of party policies or activities
as an affront on the party and an
attempt to destabilise the country.
The KANU government did not allow
public rallies to be addressed by its
opponents.
The stand was proved true when
Charles Rubia and Kenneth Matiba
applied for a licence to hold a political
Fig. 5.13: Dr. Sally Kosgei
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100
rally at Kamukunji in Nairobi on
7
th
July 1990. They wanted to
pressurise for the introduction of
multi-party democracy. Though
the government refused to issue
a licence, the leaders went ahead
and held the rally, the lack of
Fig. 5.14: A man being arrested during the
Saba Saba riots of 1990.
a licence notwithstanding. They
believed they had a right to free
speech and association. The gathered
multitude was ruthlessly dispersed by
the security forces.
The people reacted by rioting in
a number of towns in the country
including the city of Nairobi, Kisumu,
Nyeri, Thika and Nakuru. A number
of people were reportedly killed.
Rubia, Matiba and Raila Odinga
were arrested and detained under the
preservation of Public Security Act.
(iv)InuencefromotherAfrican
States
Multi-party democracy in other
countries such as Togo, Ghana,
and Zambia encouraged the local
situation in Kenya.
By 1990 there was a growing
demand in Africa to replace the
single-party systems of government
with pluralistic systems. The rst
generation of post-independence
African leaders had strongly
advocated for the establishment
of the one-party system as they
believed it would enhance political
unity where the population
comprised many tribes who owed
more allegiance to their ethnic
groups than to the emerging states.
In 1991, under great pressure,
Zambia allowed pluralism. In the
ensuing elections the Movement
for Multi-P arty Democracy
(MMD), a coalition of opposition
parties led by Fredrick Chiluba
defeated Kenneth Kaunda’s United
National Independence Party
(UNIP). Kaunda was replaced
by Chiluba as President. These
developments provided a driving
force to the advocates of multi-
party democracy in Kenya.
(v) Division in KANU
Discontent within KANU itself was
also a favourable factor that led to
the development of multi-partyism.
The 1988 queuing system of voting,
the expulsion of members who had
dissenting views in KANU, and the
political deaths of moderates like Dr.
Fig.5.15: Matiba, Raila and Rubia were
arrested and detained.
Kenneth Matiba Charles RubiaRaila Odinga
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100
Robert Ouko nurtured multi-party
activities. Prof. George Saitoti chaired
a review commission in 1990 that
visited all the provinces soliciting for
reasons for discontent in KANU. The
ndings were that there was need
for establishing multi-party politics,
over and above political tolerance.
(vi)
Repeal of section 2A
All the above factors led to the repeal
of the section 2A of the constitution in
1991. Making Kenya a multi party
state by law. As a result of this there
were a number of developments. The
following parties were formed:
(a) FORD-Forum for the Restoration
of Democracy (FORD) which
later split into Ford Kenya and
Ford Asili. Ford Kenya was
led by Jaramogi Oginga until
his death in January 1994. The
party leadership was assumed
by Michael Wamalwa Kijana
until his demise in August 2003.
Musikari Kombo then became the
chairman of Ford Kenya.
Ford Asili was headed by Kenneth
Matiba.
Fig. 5.17: Kenneth Matiba headed Ford Asili.
(b) Democratic Party (DP) was headed
by Mwai Kibaki.
Fig. 5.18: Mwai Kibaki headed DP.
(c) The Kenya Social Congress (KSC)
was headed by George Anyona
until his death in 2004.
Fig. 5.16: The late Wamalwa Kijana headed
FORD Kenya after the death of Oginga.
Candidates of Kenya (PICK),
Kenya National Democratic
Alliance (KENDA), among others.
KSC.
(d) There were other parties such as
Fig. 5.19: The late George Anyona headed
the Party of Independent
(e) On 29
th
December 1992, the
various political parties
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102
presented presidential candidates
for the General Elections. KANU
won elections with Daniel Moi as
its presidential ag bearer.
(f) The elections were held in a tense
atmosphere following the ethnic
violence throughout 1991 and
the run up to the elections. The
violence affected Rift valley,
Western Province and Nyanza.
A number of people lost their
lives, property was destroyed,
and people displaced. The ethnic
clashes as they came to be known,
left a scar of shame on Kenya which
all along had been considered an
island of peace within the East
African region.
Challenges of multi-party
democracy
Multi-party democracy has faced a
number of challenges:
(i) Political parties have not been
able to market their policies or
publish their programmes and
party manifestos because of lack
of funds. Many of the parties
depended on donations from party
supporters, membership drives or
well wishers. Some organised
party fund raisings but money
raised hardly support elaborate
party activities. When KANU
was in power it took advantage
of this limitation to suppress the
functions and the activities of the
opposition. Without adequate
funds multi-party democracy
would nd it difcult to thrive and
ourish.
(ii) Evidently many of the leading
political parties lack a definite
ideology unique to a respective
party. Their constitutions, objectives
and programmes do not reveal
clear distinctions. This may be
one reason why party members
are unaware of the differences
between their party and other
parties.
(
iii)
Due to lack of distinct ideologies, a
number of parties have developed
ethnic linkages. Multi-partism
has to some extent led to ethnic
suspicion, animosity and mistrust.
This has been a worrying trend
and causes a challenge to the
development of democracy. It has
also threatened national unity.
Many ethnic clashes have
occured due to differences in
political parties.
(iv)
Since the 1990’s, a number of
leading politicians have kept on
shifting party membership and
alliances. There have been no clear
principles that can be attributed to
these shifts other than an apparent
search for perceived higher
political prole. This has led to
clashes between political parties.
(v) Some political parties rely
heavily on nancial patronage of
individuals. Such parties lack free
and open discussion where people
can agree and disagree, which are
sound attributes of a democracy.
A political environment of this
nature frustrates the development
of democracy. It is such a situation
that leads to the saying “voting by
the stomach and not the brain. It is
the one who pays the piper that in this
case calls the tune”.
(vi) Some political parties hardly
hold internal elections. This
undemocractic practice
discourages programmes such as
membership drives and raising
funds.
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102
(vii) Most political parties lack
parliamentary representation.
They are therefore not in a position
to articulate the wishes of their
supporters.
(viii) Politicians make pledges and
other promises during the
electioneering period. The stated
promises and pledges are usually
never fullled.
(ix) Most parties are unable
to plan and implement civic
education programmes for their
members and the general public.
Inadequacy of information is a
serious drawback to these political
parties.
The role of political parties
in government and nation
building
Political parties have had a positive
impact in government and nation
building. Political parties have:
(i) Provided people with a forum
to express their views and take
a stand about the way the affairs
of the nation should be managed.
This is done without fear of being
arrested.
(ii) Promoted freedom of association.
This has been achieved by
providing alternative forums for
people where they can meet and
air their grievances.
(iii) Made the government accountable
to the people through focused
and meaningful criticism. Other
political parties criticise the ruling
party making it to be alert, hence
ensuring good governance.
(iv) Provided checks and balances
to the unnecessary abuse and
misuse of power by leaders.
(v) Provided an elaborate system
of scrutinising government
expenditure.
(vi) Made people feel free to contribute
ideas, views and suggestions to
given aspects of development
and service in the country without
feeling intimidated.
(vii)
Enabled people wishing to join
and form political parties to go
ahead and do so. New political
parties with new policies come
to incorporate the plight of
citizens.
(viii)
Promted democracy in the
country. People can easily choose
their leaders from different
political parties.
(ix) Provided employment
opportunities to many. They
offer employment through the
constituency and other offices
they create.
Economic developments
and challenges
The period since independence has
been characterised by deliberate
government efforts to improve the
economic sector. This was meant to
achieve the following:-
(i) Create opportunities for
employment of Kenyans. These
would assist in alleviating poverty.
(ii) Improve the balance of trade and
increase domestic savings.
(iii) Place the economy in the hands
of Africans, hence the adoption
of the Africanisation policy.
(iv) Enhance salaries and wages
being given to Africans. At
independence Africans were
being paid very low salaries.
Consequently their standard of
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104
living was wanting.
(v) Improve the transport and
communication network to access
remote and underdeveloped
areas.
(vi) Address the three challenges
Kenyans faced that is, ignorance,
disease and poverty .
There was need to inject into
the economy sizeable capital
resources if low productivity
and unemployment were to be
tackled.
It was with the above in mind that
the government came up with the
Sessional paper No. 10 of 1965 known
as African Socialism and its Application
to Planning in Kenya. The S essional
P aper spelt out clearly that Kenya
needed to shift from a development of
resources for others, to a development
of human and natural resources for the
benet of the people of Kenya.
Types of land holding in
Kenya
All the land in Kenya collectively
belongs to the people of Kenya.
It belongs to the people of Kenya
as a nation, as communities or as
individuals.
The constitution of Kenya has come
up with a general policy with regard
to matters of land. It states that land
should be held, used, and managed in
a manner that is equitable, efcient,
productive and sustainable.
Specically the policy outlines the
following principles with regard to
land:
(i) There should be equitable access
to land.
(ii) The security of land rights shall be
guaranteed.
(iii) The government, institutions
and individuals shall ensure
sustainable and productive
management of land. This will
discourage ownership of large
tracts of land that is under-utilised
for speculative purposes.
(iv)Land will be appropriately
managed and in a transparent
and cost-effective manner. All
underhand deals in matters of
land will be checked, monitored
and controlled.
(v) Management and use of land will
ensure that sound conservation
practices are in place by ensuring
protection of ecologically sensitive
areas.
(vi) In regard to legislation, custom
practices and procedure, there
shall be elimination of gender
discrimination. This will extend
issues that have to do with land-
related properties such as houses,
business premises, rents and rates.
(vii) Communities and individuals
will be encouraged to settle land
disputes through established and
recognised community initiatives.
However, these initiatives
should be in harmony with the
constitution and laws of the land.
There are three types of land holding
ownership in Kenya. These include:
1. Public land
2. Community land
3. Private land
1. Public land
Public land includes:
a) Land not set aside for any purpose.
(b)Land set aside for public utility
or land that is occupied by state
organs as lease.
(c) Land transferred to the state by
105
104
way of sale, reversion or surrender.
(d)Land to which individuals or
community ownership is traceable.
(e) Land for which no heir can be
identied.
(f) All minerals and mineral oils.
(g) Government forests, national
parks, game reserves, wildlife
sanctuaries, water catchment areas
and specially protected areas.
(h) All roads and thorough fares.
(i) All rivers, lakes and other water
bodies.
(j) The territorial sea, seabed and
continental shelf.
(k) All land between the high and low
water marks.
(l) Any other land declared to be
public land by an act of parliament.
2. Community land
Community land consists of :
(a) Land registered in the name of
group representatives.
(b) Land transferred to a specific
community.
(c) Land that is:
(i) Held, managed or used by
specific communities as
community forests, grazing
areas or shrines.
(ii) Ancestral land traditionally
occupied by hunter and
gatherer communities.
(iii) Held as a trust by the county
government.
(iv) Unregistered but held in trust
by county government on
behalf of the communities.
(d) Any other land declared to be
community land by an act of
parliament.
3. Private land
Private land consists of:
(a) Registered land held by any
person under freehold tenure.
(b) Land held by any person under
leasehold tenure.
(c) Any other land declared private
land under an act of parliament.
Land holding by non-citizens is
allowed only through lease for a
period not exceeding 99 years.
Land Policies
After independence, several land laws
were passed to govern the distribution
and use of land. These are as follows:
(i) Settlement and resettlement
Land has been at the centre of
Kenya’s political, social and
economic development from the
colonial period. The anti-colonial
struggles focused upon, among
other things, the demand for
land which had been set aside
specifically for whites and the
white settlement schemes.
Africans had been pushed to
infertile, hostile and barren reserves.
As the population increased,
land became inadequate. With
independence, the hope among
Africans was clear. They wanted
their land back. The independent
government had to put in place
mechanisms to transfer some
of the land previously owned by
Europeans to landless Africans.
Arrangements were made between
Kenya and Britain for settlement
and resettlement of the Africans.
Settlement involved occupation
of land which was previously
uninhabited. It also involved
planned and controlled movement
from one area to another which is
less populated.
Resettlement involved transferring
people from densely populated
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106
areas to sparsely populated areas.
Loans were to be made available
for the Africans to purchase
land in the European settlements.
This did not please some African
nationalists. They did not like the
idea of settling Africans on land
whose terms were dictated or
decided in Britain.
In 1963, the government
established the Ministry of Lands
and Settlement. It established and
expanded settlement schemes
in the country. A number of
large scale European farms were
sub-divided and Africans were
resettled on the many small-scale
farms that were created.
In a number of cases Africans
formed co-operatives and land
buying companies to purchase
farms for their members. Many of the
landless Africans were resettled on
high density schemes of between 15-
37 acres for each allocation. Farmers
with some farming experience
and recognisable resources were
settled on low density schemes.
Africans were advanced loans to
purchase land, farm inputs such as
implements, fertilisers and seeds.
(ii) Land consolidation,
adjudication and registration
The traditional African land tenure
system was subjected to land
consolidation, adjudication and
issue of freehold land titles. In
land consolidation a person with
several pieces of isolated land
would have them brought into
(consolidated) a single parcel of
equivalent acreage.
This was done for better and
more effective utilisation of land.
Land adjudication involves the
establishment of ownership,
measurement, description and
recording of land.
Registration of land and issue of
titles was meant to reduce on fraud
cases.
Farmers were encouraged to
acquire titles that would be used
as a security to acquire loans from
nancial institutions.
(iii) Agricultural Development
Corporation
The government has been
concerned not only with land
ownership, but also land use. In
promoting large scale farming,
the government established
the Agricultural Development
Corporation (ADC) to manage large
scale farms. Several ADC farms
have been retained. However, a
number have been sub-divided and
allocated to individuals. This has led
to reduced productivity as some of
the allotees are absentee farmers.
Fig. 5.20: Flowers in a green house; ower farming
was encouraged in Kenya after independence.
Some allocated farms have been
abandoned or left unused by land
speculators yet the ADC farms
were meant to produce and breed
high quality seeds and stock.
(iv) DiversicationofAgriculture
After independence the government
encouraged farmers to diversify
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106
the agricultural sector. This was to
avoid over reliance on coffee and
tea which had formed the basis
of colonial agricultural economy.
Other crops such as sugarcane and
horticultural crops have added on
the list of wheat, sisal and pyrethrum.
Today flower farming in areas
like Naivasha is earning Kenya
substantial foreign exchange.
(v) Research in Agriculture
In order to improve the quality and
productivity of the agricultural
sector, the government has
increased focus on research. The
Kenya Agricultural Research
Institute (KARI) has been
established in various parts of the
country such as Muguga, Tigoni,
Bogoria, Bukura, Embu and
Kitale. It carries out research on
crop varieties and animal breeds,
and the various ways of curbing
different pests and diseases,
among others. One challenge has
been the re-allocation of KARI
farms to individuals who have
turned them into settlements.
These allocations have been and
are still fairly controversial.
(vi)
Irrigation schemes
With regard to marginal and arid
areas, the government attempted
to increase land under irrigation
from 3,340 hectares at independence
to over 9,000 hectares by 1983.
Some of these irrigation projects
have boosted the production of
rice, cotton, fruits and vegetables.
To ensure appropriate use of
water resources, the government
established the Tana-Athi
Development Authority, Kerio
Valley Development Authority
and Lake Basin Development
Authority. These authorities co-
ordinate and monitor the proper
use of the environmental resources
of their respective catchment
areas. The government has also
reclaimed land in the Kano Plains,
Yala Swamp and Lambwe Valley
for purposes of farming.
Fig. 5.21: Area being irrigated; irrigation
has led to increased production of
agricultural produce.
(vii) Conservation of the environment
Efforts have been made to conserve
the environment by planting
forests, conserving soils and water.
The government has through the
use of extension ofcers and by-
laws attempted to address the
following challenges:
(a) Destruction of forests through
cultivation, timber harvesting,
firewood collection, charcoal
burning and collection of
building and fencing posts.
For example, in 2001 a vast
area of Mau complex averaging
46,000 hectares of forested water
catchment had been cleared
for settlement. This adversely
affected the water catchment for
Masaai Mau Ol’ Porimoru, Mau
region itself, Londiani, Tinderet
and Majimazuri.
(b) Poor farming techniques on hills
and mountain slopes.
(c) Diversion of water sources for
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108
Fig. 5.23: Prof. Wangari Maathai won
Nobel Prize in 2004.
(viii) Mechanisation
Farming on large pieces of land
was mechanised. Using the loans
provided, farmers bought modern
and more efficient agricultural
machinery. The machines include
tractors for ploughing and planting
on large farms covering large
acreages.
Challenges on land
Land remains a focal point in Kenya’s
history. It was the basis upon which the
struggle for independence was waged.
Land continues to play a central
position in Kenya’s social, economic
and political relations. However, it
poses a number of challenges which
include the following:
(i) The increased population pressure
on fertile land and the associated
decline in individual land holdings
what has resulted into low and
decreasing productivity.
Continued sub-division of land
into unviable sites has in some
areas created rural slums.
individual use.
(d) Increased crop failure and
reducing yields.
(e) Overstocking, cultivation or
planting of trees like eucalyptus
along river banks that take in a
lot of water hence lowering the
water table.
Fig. 5.22: Forest being cleared; this has been
discouraged to conserve the environment.
In the 1980’s, the Permanent
Presidential Commission on Soil
Conservation and Afforestation was
established. Its responsibility was to co-
ordinate and mobilise efforts by various
agencies in environmental conservation
programmes. Various groups have also
been sensitised towards establishing
tree nurseries and on matters of
environmental conservation.
In October 2004 Prof. Wangari
Maathai scooped the prestigious Nobel
Peace Prize for crusading the Green Belt
Movement whose consistent struggle
was to conserve the environment. The
prize was in recognition of her efforts
in environmental management and
democracy.
With the help of various groups
and non-governmental organisations,
the government is encouraging agro-
ecological zone surveys to harmonise
information on rainfall, water,
topography and land use.
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108
Fig.5.25: Continuous sub-division of land
such as this reduces productivity.
(ii) There is also need to address a
number of land related grievances.
For example, conflict has arisen
between land ownership and land
use. It was this conict that was at
the centre of the ethnic clashes that
rocked parts of Kenya in the 1992,
1997, 2002 and 2007 election years.
(iii)There is no single and harmonised
law that governs land ownership.
In some places the customary
tenure still applies. Yet in other
areas there is the free hold land
ownership with titles. There is
also land held under trust by
local authorities and public land
owned by the government. The
administration of the various land
laws continues to pose a challenge
to the government in general and
law courts in particular.
(iv)The myth of the validity of the
land title poses a unique ownership
challenge. The nal legal process
of land allocation is achieved
by the issue and acquisition of a
title deed. The title deed is issued
by the C ommissioner of L ands
and the owner is the registered
proprietor. The manner in which
such a title is issued is in most
cases irrelevant. This introduces
an element of sometimes illegal,
irregular and unfair procedure
followed to acquire a title. There
are a number of civil legal cases
pending in courts resulting from
these registered parcels of land. At
times conicts have arisen between
persons in the legal proceedings
resulting into violence and death.
There are loop holes in land
allocation and registration.
(v) The issue of grabbing of public
land in many parts of the country
has given rise to public resistance
to the practice. A number of
communities and neighbourhoods
have through intensied public
land grabbing lost land meant for
use as playgrounds, recreational
areas, health centres, schools and
other community amenities.
Demonstrations, protests and
violent encounters have increased.
It is common to see organised
groups tearing down walls, cutting
down fences erected by the so called
‘private developers’ in an effort to
recover and safeguard public land.
(vi) One of the challenges facing the
legal administration of land has
been the missing, inaccurate
and incomplete records of land
in the Ministry of Lands and
Settlement. It becomes difcult
to verify land ownership records
and allocation. This has been the
case with land ownership in areas
of Karura, Ngong, Mau forest and
Kitale Prison land.
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110
Fig. 5.26: Playgrounds have been lost to land
grabbers.
(vii) There has been increasing
conict between the large scale
land owners and the landless
surrounding communities. This
has been the case in Taita and
the Coast where some absentee
landlords own large pieces of
land, yet the local people remain
landless. Local groups have at
times attempted to invade and
occupy such pieces of land.
(viii)
The established thereafter
provided an opportunity for
corruption and land grabbing.
District ofcials, senior ofcers in
the armed forces, their relatives,
prominent persons and senior
civil servants were allocated land
in established settlement schemes
at the expense of the deserving
poor. The Kinari settlement
scheme in Kiambu district is an
illustration of these irregular land
allocations.
(ix) One other potential area of
conict and challenge has been
the question of land ownership in
relation to land use. Some people
own large pieces of land which
are hardly put to use, yet there are
other people who would be ready
to put such land to productive
use. There is need for a policy
regarding idle land and how much
land an individual can own.
Industry
Soon after independence the
government of Kenya established the
Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
It was expected that commercial and
industrial expansion and development
would achieve the following:
(a) Ensure that Africans who had been
discriminated against would be
assisted in the creation of wealth.
(b) There would be increased
employment opportunities.
(c) Develop and sharpen
manufacturing and processing
skills among Africans. This has
been the basis of the origin, growth
and development of the Jua-kali
sector.
(d) Reduction of the reliance on
imported products that have a
negative effect on foreign earnings.
(e) Increase foreign earnings through
the export of locally manufactured
goods. This was the background
upon which the Export Processing
Zone was founded.
The Department of Industry was
established with a specic agenda
of encouraging, developing and
sustaining market oriented production.
This was to consequently cut down on
importation.
Within the Ministry of Commerce,
the department of internal trade was to
provide loans to small scale business
people while the Development Finance
Company of Kenya, the Industrial
Development Bank, the Kenya Industrial
Estates, the Kenya Commercial Bank and
the Kenya Finance Corporation provide
funding for more elaborate industrial
ventures.
A number of organisations like, the
Kenya Women Finance Trust of Kenya
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110
advances loans to business women
to establish and promote various
industrial and commercial projects.
This has contributed to financial
empowerment of the Kenyan business
persons.
Since independence Kenya has
developed the following industries:
(i) Agro-industries such as milling,
bakery, jaggery and oil seed
crushing.
(ii) Chemical industries for making
distempers (paints), varnishes,
wax candles, adhesives and
stationery products.
(iii) Metal industries for producing
nails, bolts, barbed wire, utensils,
drums, pins and chips.
(iv) Textile industries for weaving and
cloth making.
(v) Tanning and leather goods
industries.
(vi) Non-metallic mineral industries
for making ceramic goods, glass,
sanitary wares and electrical
insulators.
(vii)
The government has also
encouraged formation of Jua-
kali industries. These industries
have led to production of cheaper
goods especially from recycled
products, such as, tin and plastics.
Challenges on industry
Industrialisation in Kenya has
encountered a number of challenges.
These are:
(i) The declining employment
opportunities and the increasing
level ofpoverty have had a negative
impact on industrial growth. Jobs
can only be created through an
expanded economy and an ofcial
industrial growth utilising the
latest production strategies and
technologies. Unemployed and
poor people have low purchasing
power and their low consumption
of industrial products and services
cannot efciently and effectively
support growth in industry.
Poverty makes it impossible to
have sufcient funds to invest in
economic ventures.
(ii) Low level incomes become a
suitable environment for
consumption of cheap, secondhand
imported products commonly
known as ‘mitumba’.
These in themselves undermine
the growth of industry. The textile,
motor and leather industries
have been particularly hit by the
importation of cheap products. A
number of textile mills in Kisumu,
Eldoret and Thika were forced to
close down. Some however have
been opened since, for example,
Rivatex has been taken over by
Moi university.
(iii) The physical infrastructure in
Kenya is yet to be sufficiently
developed to create an enabling
environment necessary for
economic and industrial growth.
There are physical infrastructural
shortfalls in power and water
supply, information technology,
roads, rail and port facilities. These
hamper industrial growth.
(iv) The cost of raw materials and
limited access to credit is a
constraint to investment in various
economic ventures, industry
included. Small scale enterprises
can hardly access funds from
banks because of distrust between
banks and borrowers.
(v) There is inadequate managerial,
technical and business knowledge
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approval to establish a business
in Uganda or Tanzania, such
approval would take months even
years in Kenya. This is a challenge
that has to be addressed. The
establishment of the I nvestment
P romotion C entre was meant
to reduce time wasted on pre-
operational activities. There is
need to cut down on the long and
slow procedures, duplication of
licencing requirements and check
on the un-business like attitudes
of public servants.
(x) One other challenge in industrial
and economic development has
been the unequitable growth in
industry. Certain regions and
settlements still hold greater
attraction to industrial investors.
On the whole the existing
urban centres continue to hold
comparative advantage to the
establishment of industrial
projects.
Fig. 5.27: Mitumba shoes on sale; secondhand
wears have undermined the growth of the
industry.
and skills among the local
investors. This has led to resource
wastage through investments in
non-viable projects.
(vi) The link between industry and
research is weak. There is no proper
research to identify potential
prospects and problems. There
exist a need between the private
sector funding and research since
one can hardly see communication
between the manufacturers, users
and research.
(viii)
There is increasing need to
harmonise, up-date and
coordinate the judicial and
legal statutes that govern the
operations of industry. Laws that
are irrelevant or outmoded tend
to frustrate the development of
industry. Effort has been made
to establish commercial courts
that are specialised to speedily
handle business and industrial
operations disputes.
Fig. 5.29: Nairobi Milimani Courts handle
disputes.
(ix) The overwhelming bureaucracy
and corruption are considered
by business persons wishing to
invest in Kenya as drawbacks to
business establishment. While
it takes within 20 days to get
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112
Social developments and
challenges
Since 1963, Kenya has made
recognisable social advances in the
fields of education, health, culture
and sports.
Education
At independence, ignorance
was identified as one of the major
hindrances to national development.
Education was seen as the only way
the government would have resorted
to, if it were to have skilled manpower
to replace expatriates in the civil service,
commerce and industry.
The education system inherited at
independence was geared towards
producing clerks, servants and low
level workers in colonial power and
economic structure.
There was need to tailor education
to post-independence developments.
Several commissions and committees
were set up to advise the government
on the most suitable and appropriate
system of education. Among the
outstanding commissions were Ominde
(1964), Gachathi (1976), Mackay (1981),
Kamunge (1988), Koech (2002).
Each of these commissions made
elaborate recommendations towards
educational reforms. The emphasis
was placed on making education
meaningful and relevant to the social,
economic and political aspirations of
the people of Kenya.
Consequently there has been a
tremendous expansion in education at
all levels.
In 1963, there was only one
constituent college of the University
of East Africa-The Royal Technical
College.
In 1970 the University of Nairobi
was established being the rst full
pledged University in Kenya. By 2006,
Kenya had seven full pledged public
universities namely Nairobi, Moi,
Kenyatta, Jomo Kenyatta, Egerton,
Maseno and the latest being Masinde
Muliro University of Science and
Technology in Kakamenga.
There are also several private
universities, some with their own
charters. These include Daystar,
Catholic University of East Africa, the
United States International University,
Nazarene, Strathmore and Baraton,
among others.
In addition there are several
middle level colleges, institutes and
polytechnics. Many of these were
initiated by the local communities on
harambee basis. They were meant to
provide secondary school leavers with
technical skills for employment. These
universities and colleges offer training
in various areas such as medicine,
agriculture, teaching, veterinary,
forestry, secretarial, water technology,
information technology, business
studies and catering, among others.
There are three national
polytechnics namely; Nairobi,
Mombasa and Eldoret offering
middle, specialised and higher level
technical oriented training. Students
who excel in performance from these
institutions may seek admission for
degree programmes at the public
universities.
In the Ministry of Education, the
government has set up departments
and institutions to perform tasks
aimed at ensuring quality delivery of
education. The Quality Assurance and
Standards Ofcers (QASO) supervise
the implementation of the curriculum.
The Kenya Institute of Curriculum
Development (KICD) develops the
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relevant curriculum, teaching and
learning materials used in schools
and colleges. The Kenya National
Examination Council develops,
administers and certifies national
examinations.
Within the M inistry of C ulture
and N ational Heritage is the
department of non-formal education.
It is meant to develop and supervise
the implementation of non-formal
education programmes. The
government is expected to eliminate
illiteracy among adults through these
programmes.
The 1981 Presidential W orking
P arty on the S econd University
(Mackay Report), apart from
recommending the establishment of
a second university, Moi University.
It made recommendations for the
change of the education system to
8–4–4. The system was to have eight
years of primary education, four
years of secondary education and a
minimum of four years of university
education. The curriculum was to
emphasise the teaching of vocational
and practical subjects such as art, craft,
metal work, agriculture, carpentry
and home science. It was geared
towards providing school leavers
with necessary vocational skills
which would enable them secure
employment in either the formal or
informal sector, and also get self-
employed. The system was launched
in primary schools in 1985.
In 1992, the curriculum underwent
a minor review. In 2002, the
Ministry of Education completed
a comprehensive review of the
curriculum at the primary and the
secondary level. A number of the
concerns were addressed including
the emerging issues of HIV and
AIDS, drug abuse, environmental
conservation, the rights of the child,
corruption, gender, globalisation and
good governance. Each subject was
expected to accommodate these issues
in its content to make it relevant to the
needs of the Kenyan society. The new
curriculum was launched in P rimary
one, ve and F orm O ne in January 2003.
With effect from January 2003, the
NARC government launched free
and compulsory primary education.
By 2004, an additional 1.2 million
children were enrolled in regular
primary schools and 30,000 in non-
formal centres. The total number of
primary school enrolment rose from
5.9 million in December 2002 to 7.5
million in 2004, an increase of 22% in
one year. This led to overstretching of
learning facilities. The pupil-teacher
ratio also went up demanding for
recruitment and employment of more
teachers.
In the run up to the December
2007 General Elections, the main
presidential aspirants pledged that
they would introduce free Secondary
School Education if elected. In January
2008, the coalition government
introduced free tuition in all public
secondary schools throughout the
country.
The government has also shown
concern over the education of the
street children. A number of children
were taken to rehabilitation centres for
training in various skills and others to
the National Youth Service.
Challenges in the provision
of education
The provision of education in Kenya
since independence has faced a
number of challenges. These include
the following:
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114
(i) One of the major challenges in
education has been to evolve and
sustain an education system that
provides access, relevance and
quality to all eligible learners;
one that promotes national unity,
moral intergrity and mutual social
responsibilities. However, our
education has not achieved all this.
(ii) There is a challenge of the
increasing need to expand social,
scientific and technological
education at all levels for the
production of adequate human
resource to meet the demands of
Kenya as a developing nation.
(iii)The national curriculum does
not take into consideration the
regional and individual school
differences with regard to facilities,
equipment and learning materials.
The disparities have to do with
access to education in terms of
region, social groups and gender.
(iv)The curriculum also poses a
challenge in that it is overloaded
and basically examination oriented.
This limits learner freedom to
exploit the learning environment.
In which case learners are not
enabled to discover their own
talents, abilities and interests. A
number of teachers have a heavy
work load, they consequently have
little time to prepare their lessons,
teach, mark and supervise co-
curriculum activities.
(v) There is also gender disparity in
access to education. Fewer girls
than boys are accessing secondary
and tertiary education. At the
university male students continue
to dominate competitive career
courses like medicine, engineering,
law and technology. There is need
to address this challenge.
Fig. 5.32: Releasing form four examination
results; the curriculum is examination oriented.
(vi) There is inadequate counselling
in schools, yet problems of
drug abuse, HIV and AIDS and
indiscipline among students are
prevalent.
Over the years, students’ unrest
in high schools have led to
premature closure of schools,
thus interfering with the learning
programme. As seen in the recent
school strikes, the damage of
school equipment and buildings
especially through burning has
led to the unnecessary destruction
of valuable property and the loss
of lives. Some of these problems
have reached worrying levels.
(vii)
Most schools lack the necessary
resources and facilities to teach
science and practical skill subjects.
Teaching tends to be theoretical
rather than practical since
laboratory resources and teachers
are inadequate. There is also need
to re-train existing teachers on
how to improvise resources and
address resource shortages.
(viii)
The street children rehabilitation
scheme was also not adequately
funded and planned, causing
many street children to run away
from those rehabilitation centres
back to the streets.
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116
(ix) The introduction of free Primary
education and free tuition in
secondary schools has made
O-level education more affordable.
However Higher education still
remains expensive for those who
do not qualify to join public
universities and acquire loans. The
Higher Education Loans Board
(HELB) has tried to assist students
by making loans available and
accessible to students in public
and private universities.
(x) Schools do not receive regular
inspection and the curriculum
is also not frequently appraised,
making it irrelevant. This calls
for meaningful education policies
and a legal framework to manage
quality education reforms.
(xi) There is also need to appropriately
train and retrain the teachers to
face the challenges of the 21st
century. The Sessional Paper No.1
of 2005 on Education, Training and
Research suggests restructuring
the teacher education programme
to make it relevant and of good
quality.
(xii) The intention of the government
to attain the Universal Primary
Education (UPE) and Education
For All (EFA) by the year 2005 led
to increased enrolment causing
strain on facilities, equipment,
materials and human resources.
This is because there was no
good preparation before its
implementation.
(xiii)
The pre-primary schooling is
not harmonised. While there is
baby-class, nursery and pre-unit
in urban areas, this may totally be
missing in rural areas with only
nursery or children going straight
to class one.
(ivx) There is a disconnection
between what our education
offers and what the industrial and
job market needs. This has made
many graduates lack relevancy or
need retraining to be able to get
any jobs.
Health services
Since 1963, the Kenyan government
has been committed to improving and
providing adequate health services to
its people. The following measures
have been undertaken to achieve the
objective of providing quality and
adequate health services for all.
(i) The Ministry of Health plans,
co-ordinates and promotes health
services through the government
and private health institutions.
(ii) Effort has been made to train health
personnel including community
nurses, registered nurses, clinical
ofcers, pharmacists and doctors.
(iii) A number of health centres and
hospitals have been built in
rural and urban areas. The two
national referral hospitals, that
is, Kenyatta Hospital in Nairobi
and Moi University teaching and
referral hospital in Eldoret offer
treatment to many.
(iv) A number of health facilities have
been constructed on Harambee
basis, while others have come
up due to private initiative by
individuals, groups, or religious
organisations. Such efforts
have enhanced the quality of
healthcare services.
(v) The Ministry of Health has
undertaken many healthcare
programmes geared towards
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116
improving the quality of health
care. Such programmes include
immunisation, provision of family
planning services and Voluntary
Counselling and Testing, which
provide counselling in aspects of
HIV and AIDS. People are also
educated on nutrition and diseases
preventive measures. With the
danger posed by HIV and AIDS
pandemic, various organisations
have teamed up with the Ministry
of Health to raise awareness on
this scourge.
Fig. 5.35: KEMRI co-ordinates medical
research hence improving the health sector.
(vi) The African Medical Research
Foundation (AMREF) has mobilised
women towards developing and
sustaining primary health oriented
projects which deal with nutrition,
hygiene and pre-natal care.
(vii)
In the recent past, the government
has licenced individuals and
organisations to construct and
run clinics, home-based care
services, nursing and maternity
homes and hospitals. Services
provided by these individuals
and organisations complement
government effort.
(viii) The government has also
established a special fund for
the physically impaired. It
provides financial assistance to
the associations and institutions
for the physically impaired. It has
also encouraged the development
of hospices for the terminally ill
for example, the Eldoret Hospice.
(ix) International organisations such
as the World Health Organisation
(WHO) and the United Nations
(UN) have continued to support
various health programmes and
activities in Kenya.
(x) The Kenya Medical Research
Institute (KEMRI) co-ordinates
medical research institutes and
health research programmes.
The research institutes and centres
include:
(a) The Clinical Research Centre, the
Kenya Tuberculosis Investigation
Centre, the Infectious Diseases
Hospital and Virus Research
Centre in Nairobi.
(b) The Leprosy Research Centre in
Alupe-Busia.
(c) The Malaria and Other Protozoan
Diseases Research Centre in
Kisumu.
(d) The Kenya Trypanosomiasis
Research Institute (KETRI) in
Muguga.
The research units have contributed
to improved health service delivery in
the country. There has been renewed
interest in traditional herbal medicine.
The Ministry of Health has established
co-ordination programmes to involve
traditional healers, herbalists and
herbal treatment in medical care.
Herbal medicines are analysed at Kenya
Medical Research Institute (KEMRI).
In line with this, Kenyatta University
has established the Department of
alternative medicine. The herbal
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118
medicine has supplemented use of
other medicines in the treatment of
many diseases.
Fig. 5.36: A herbal medicine seller; herbal
medicine has had renewed interest.
Challenges that face the
provision of health care
services in Kenya
The main challenge to the provision
of healthcare services is the need to
provide healthcare. With this need
a number of subsidiary challenges
surface. Among these are:
(i) The burden of HIV and AIDS
and other recurrent diseases
HIV and AIDS, malaria, typhoid
and diarrhoea continue to
place a heavy burden on the
already strained health delivery
programmes. A number of
hospitals were not purposely
constructed to handle cases such
as HIV and AIDS. Currently half
of the in-patients are HIV and
AIDS cases or those suffering from
HIV and AIDS related illnesses.
This places a heavy burden on
the health facilities, personnel,
nancial resources and drugs.
(ii) Poverty
There is a close link between
poverty and access to health service.
Poverty makes affected patients
resort to cheap treatment. There
is also delay in accessing proper
health care bringing about worse
outcomes. Women and children
are particularly affected as the
majority have no income of their
own. A poorly performing national
economy also negatively affects
provision of appropriate healthcare
services. The Kenyan government
currently allocates about 12 billion
shillings to the Ministry of Health.
Most of this money goes into
recurrent expenditure of paying
salaries as opposed to purchase
of drugs, equipment and medical
research.
(iii) Illiteracy and ignorance
These has lead to the misuse of
drugs leading to mutations of
disease. Some become resistant
to medication making treatment
cumbersome and costly.
(iv) Imbalance between urban and
rural areas
There is disparity between urban
and rural healthcare services.
Rural health facilities tend to
be relatively understaffed, ill-
equipped and with inadequate
drugs. There is also laxity in
the management of rural health
facilities and institutions. The rural
areas also have a limited range of
qualied health workers. Urban
areas attract more doctors both in
public and private practice.
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118
All these factors contribute towards
rural to urban patient migration.
This strains the referral hospital
facilities with cases that could have
been handled in the county and
rural health care centres.
(v) Government policy
The M inistry of Health policy of
posting doctors only to hospitals
denies other lower category
healthcare institutions qualied
services. There is also delay in
terms of co-ordination between
the ministry headquarters and
the rural areas. For example, if
one was to put up a health care
facility, one has to seek approval
from the ministry headquarters.
Such approval is not promptly
granted. This consequently denies
needy cases prompt provision of
health care services. There is also
increasing need to shift emphasis
from curative to preventive health
care programmes. The Ministry
of Health has a department of
Information, Education and
Communication (IEC) that is
expected to inform the public on
health matters, yet it does not.
(vi)
Doctor to patient ratio
Currently in Kenya the doctor-
patient ratio stands at about
1:10,000. Yet in the developed
world the ratio is below 1:1000.
A number of patients can hardly
access services of qualied doctors.
There is increasing pressure to
open up medical schools in all
public universities. Should this
happen, then the issue of quality
of training may equally arise.
(vii)
Cultural inhibitions
Cultural inhibitions such as taboos,
myths and misinformation affect
proper health service delivery.
For example, if HIV and AIDS is
considered a curse, a patient may
fail to access prompt and proper
advise and treatment.
(viii)
Unavailability of medical
data
The lack of medical data on
individuals causes delay in
treatment. The task of obtaining
health details that would otherwise
be promptly and conveniently
retrieved on a computer takes time.
Delayed laboratory tests results
deny a patient prompt medical
attention, the result of which may
be fatal. This has been due to
low computerisation especially in
public hospitals.
(ix)
Recurrent diseases
These diseases occur in a predictable
pattern but the government has
been unable to contain them. The
response to the occurrence of these
diseases has also been wanting,
for example, highland malaria and
typhoid.
(x) Payment for health services
The proposed free healthcare
scheme has faced opposition due
to insufcient funds and medical
facilities to sustain it. Many poor
Kenyans have therefore continued
to suffer as they cannot afford the
current cost sharing healthcare
scheme.
(xi)
Curative versus preventive
approach
There has been increased emphasis
on curative as opposed to curative
measures to healthcare.
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120
xiii) Increased rate of road accidents
on the roads also put a strain on
healthcare services.
(xii)
Role of herbal medicine
There is no clear-cut stand on the
position of herbal medicine in
health services provision. Yet
herbal medicine plays an intergral
role in providing health services.
The public is not guided on when,
where and why to seek herbal
medicine. A sizeable number
however rely on herbal medicine
treatment.
(xiii) Contant strips by medical
practioners has largly affected the
provision of services.
Culture and Sports
In official documents such as the
constitution or the national goals of
education, the Kenyan government
has expressed the desire to respect
and promote Kenya’s rich and varied
culture. The constitution pledges and
reaffirms the rights and freedoms
of the individual in promoting and
sustaining the national culture. The
following cultural areas have been at
the centre of focus:
(i) Music and dance. These have
received great emphasis as there are
several music and dance troupes
in Kenya. One of the major events
in the national calendar is the
Kenya National Music Festivals. A
number of performances are based
on traditional themes with the use
of traditional instruments such as
lyres and harps. Cultural dances
are also used to entertain tourists
and state guests.
Fig. 5.37: Traditional dancers entertaining
people during a public holiday.
(ii) Sculpturing as a branch of creative
arts is becoming increasingly
popular in Kenya. Different
sculptors have made many items
that are sold within and outside
Kenya. For example, Elkana
Ong’esa has produced works that
have been displayed in various
world capitals. He has made a
gigantic seven ton soapstone
piece at UNESCO headquarters
in Paris, France depicting peace.
He also produced a two ton
statue reecting Kenya’s struggle
for independence and aspects of
nationwide development. The
soapstone statue stands at the
UN headquarters in New York.
Abagusii soapstone carvings are
gradually penetrating various
overseas markets.
(iii) Drama, plays and other theatrical
performances are staged for
example, at the Kenya National
Theatre-Nairobi. Here, local and
foreign plays are staged.
There are also a number of theatrical
groups entertaining people in
various parts of the country.
Nairobi, Moi, and Kenyatta
Universities organise travelling
theatres.
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120
In major towns people have
established theatre clubs. The
plays and dramas have themes
that help boost our culture and
create awareness in many aspects
that affect us in our day to day
lives.
(iv) In the eld of painting and art,
the government, in conjuction
with other organisations, has in
the recent past assisted various
artists to exhibit their works. This
has led to many talented persons
becoming self-employed. Such
exhibitions have led to increased
demand for Kenyan works of art
on the local and international
market.
(v) Traditional crafts such as basketry,
pottery, traditional iron mongery,
and other traditional works of craft
have increased. There is increased
need to blend traditional craft
that has advanced with modern
ones to come up with resourceful
appropriate craft. There is increased
government effort to encourage
and support local craftsmen to
make baskets, among others, for
sale to enable them earn a living.
This promotes our culture.
Fig. 5.38: Basketry has enabled many to earn
a living.
(vi) In order to promote Kenya’s
rich and varied culture, the
various government organs have
encouraged and supported cultural
festivals such as those held in Busia,
Kisii and Vihiga to depict cultures
of the respective communities.
A number of urban and municipal
centres, towns and local councils
have set aside land for the
development of cultural centres.
(vii)
In the area of research and
documentation, the Ministry of
Culture and National Heritage,
the Ministry of Education, the
National Council of Science and
Technology and the universities
are undertaking focused studies
geared towards disseminating
information on various aspects
of culture. These include songs,
dances, drama, proverbs, riddles
and stories, among others.
(viii)
Kenya has also signed cultural
exchange agreements with various
countries leading to exchange
of artists. These include France,
China, Germany, USA, Britain and
African countries such as DRC and
Ethiopia. These exchanges have
led to a number of Kenyan cultural
and dancing troupes performing
in various world capitals.
(ix) The government, through the
C ommunication C ommission
of Kenya and the Kenya Film
Corporation encourages
production of local films that
promote culture. It has also
provided guidance to the media
houses on the amount of local
content to be aired.
(x) In the field of sports, Kenya is
well known internationally for
producing outstanding sportsmen
and women. Kenyan athletes have
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122
had impressive performances at
the Olympics, Commonwealth
and All African Games.
Fig.5.39: Kenyan athletes have shone internationally.
A number of Kenyans have won
various medals and even set world
records. Some of the leading sports
men and women include Kipchoge
Keino, Paul Tergat, Ezekiel Kemboi
and Catherine Ndereba, among others.
Fig. 5.40: Catherine Ndereba; a leading sports
lady.
The government has also embarked
on the establishment and development
of sports facilities like the Moi
International Sports Centre Kasarani,
which is of international standards.
The Nyayo National Stadium in Nairobi
also has modern sports facilities. In
1987, Kenya hosted the All Africa
Games at the Moi International Sports
Centre. The event brought together
many leading sports persons from all
over the African continent.
Fig. 5.41: Moi International Sports Centre at
Kasarani.
To enhance the status of women and
in recognition of the signicance of
sports in nation building, the NARC
government created the Ministry of
Gender and Sports in 2003. After the
2007 General elections however, it
was split into two ministries, that is,
the Ministry of Gender and Children
Affairs and Ministry of Sports and
Youth Affairs.
Challenges in culture and
sports
Since independence, the areas of
culture and sports have experienced a
number of challenges. These are:
(i) Poor attitude
The general attitude towards sports
and cultural activities has not been
positive. Art, music, dance and
sports are still considered by many
Kenyans as recreational events
and not serious professional
undertakings.
(ii) Lack of proper patent laws
A number of Kenyan works of art
such as carvings and sculpture
have been pirated in various world
capitals. There has been increasing
need to put in place patent laws
that protect these works of art.
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122
(viii)
Western-culture mentality
People have considered inferior to
western or Hollywood production.
This causes the European and
American movies and music to
be given preference over the local
ones.
(ix) Imitation of foreign artists
Apart from Kenyans giving
preference to foreign works of
art, the local artists have not
done themselves any good by
imitating foreign artists. For
instance, the hip hop singers
do everything to imitate their
American counterparts. This
keeps them from being authentic
and original.
(x) Pornographic movies
The censorship board that is
charged with the responsibility
of vetting movies shown locally
has been overwhelmed. There
are many pornographic movies
being shown that negatively
affect the morality of our society.
Access and downloading of the
pornographic material from the
internet has made it difcult to
monitor the materials coming to
Kenya.
(xi) Corruption in sports
Corruption has also affected
the sports sector. The football
federation has faced corruption
allegations involving sponsors’
money and gate collections.
Cricket has also been affected
by corruption, leading to some
cricket officials being taken to
court. This has not been good for
sports.
(iii)
Poornancialrewards
Local sporting activities are not
nancially rewarding. This has led
to a number of sports persons taking
up sporting contracts in Europe
and the United States. Reputable
artists like Daudi Kabaka, Peter
Lukoye and Fundi Konde died in
poverty yet they had remarkable
artistic performances and stage
entertainment.
(iv)
Emergence of new
entertainment facilities
In the recent past cultural
presentations, for example, at
Kenya National Theatre have
faced stiff competition from more
professional shows on video and
television screens, for example at
cinema halls like Kenya cinema,
Fox cineplex, Nairobi cinema and
Numetro.
(v) Foreign team syndrome
Foreign teams like Manchester
United and Arsenal have become
household names. They have
acquired emotional and fanatical
support more than the local teams
like Harambee stars. This is posing a
great challenge to the development
of sport in Kenya.
(vi)
Lack of cultural policy
We lack a cultural policy to guide
us into ways of preserving our
culture and how to intergrate
global perspective of evolving
cultures.
(vii)
Poor tapping of talent
Whereas there is clear exhibition
of talent in the youth in such
events as school music and
drama festivals and sports, such
talent is left to go to waste as it
is not promoted for continued
development.
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(xiv)Emigrated archives
When the colonialists left, they
did so with many priceless
cultural artefacts. These artefacts
are now in European capitals
denying the country its heritage
and income that can be gained
from them.
(xv)
Piracy
Piracy refers to copying music
or movies for sale, without
permission from the owner
Many artists especially musicians
lose a lot of income from their
works due to the sale of pirated
copies. This piracy is in large scale
that reproduces many copies of
the works of art. It is difficult
to differentiate these pirated
copies from the genuine copies.
Dealing with the piracy problem
at legislative level is difcult as
piracy is treated as a civil case
instead of a criminal one.
(xii)Regional limitation of
particular sports
There are sports like rugby,
hockey, basketball, squash and
cricket that are only limited to
particular regions. Most primary
schools in rural areas only
know of football, volleyball and
netball. This denies the country
potential talent from these areas.
It is therefore a challenge for the
government to take all sports to
all parts of the country.
(xiii)
Government involvement in
sports
Although there is a ministry
dealing with sports and even
a commissioner of sports, the
government involvement in
sports is selective. There is too
much emphasis on football, while
sports like cricket and rugby
where Kenya has potential of
shining worldwide are ignored.
Activities
1. Imagine you were Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, prepare a ve minute address
on why Kenya needed to embrace a multi-party democracy.
2. Invite:
(a) The District Development Ofcer to give a speech on “The economic
challenges that have faced the district since 1963.”
(b) Health Ofcers to give a speech on HIV and AIDS pandemic in Kenya.
3. Organise a group discussion on challenges facing education in Kenya
today.
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Exercise
1. Outline six political challenges that Kenya has faced since independence.
2. State four ways in which political parties have promoted democratic
governance in Kenya.
3. Analyse ve challenges of multi-party democracy in Kenya since 1991.
4. Give reasons why the Kenyan government has continued to lay emphasis
on economic development.
5. Identify economic challenges Kenya has faced since independence.
6. Outline the land policies that were developed in Kenya after independence.
7. Explain the challenges that Kenya has faced with regard to the provision
of education since 1963.
8. Discuss the constraints that Kenya has experienced in the development of
industry.
9. Explain the challenges that Kenya has faced with regards to culture and
sports since 1963.
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Since independence each country in
Africa has undergone unique and
specific political, economic and social
developments. These developments have
on the whole reected characteristics of
developing countries.
The political developments were
inuenced by the search for effective
and stable leadership. There was effort
to intergrate the many divided political
ethnic groups that were diverse and
suspicious of each other upto this time.
The developments in economic areas
centred around mining and agricultural
activities. The social developments
centred around education, health,
culture and sports. This unit examines
these developments and the related
challenges with specic reference to
the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC) and Tanzania.
Social, E conomic and Political
Developments in the DRC
The DRC is a vast country covering
approximately 230,000 square
kilometres. It is the largest country in
Africa and is endowed with mineral
and hydro-electric power resources.
The DRC was a colony of Belgium,
hence the name the Belgian Congo.
The rst post-war decade witnessed
an economic growth for Belgian
Congo.
There was dramatic urban growth.
However, a wide gap developed
between the rural peasantry and the
urban mine and industrial workers.
It is also true that Belgium never
exploited the resources of Congo fully.
Moreover it never opened the education
opportunities for Africans. The educated
Congolese (Zaireans) could hardly ll
the administrative and political jobs
required in an independent government.
Senior positions in the government,
army and police remained in the
hands of Belgians. Even with the rich
natural resources, the country remained
relatively poor with an undeveloped
transport and communication network.
The Belgian government
encouraged and fueled divisions
and conicts within and among the
various ethnic groupings. Thus, by
1960 Congolese politicians could
hardly forge a united national cause.
The political problems dominated the
years after independence in Congo.
The Belgians did not support
independence for the country. They
had even demanded to have their own
white independent state in Congo. By
1960, strong politicians were trying to
establish themselves in the provinces
with no apparent desire to build true
national political networks.
Political developments
Congo had three main political
centres namely; Leopoldville,
Elizabethville and Stanelyville with
each having a powerful political
leadership.
Unit
6
POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS AND
CHALLENGES IN AFRICA SINCE
INDEPENDENCE
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126
In Leopoldville, the capital, Joseph
Kasavubu formed the Association des
Bakongo (Abako). Abako had support
from the sophisticated and wealthy
persons and the Congo elite.
Though popular, the party only
focused on narrow Congo unity.
It was potentially secessionist. Its
leaders wanted to revive the ancient
Congo kingdom which would include
Angola and the French Congo.
In Elizabethville, Moishe Tshombe
formed the Confederation des
Associates Tribals du Katanga
(CONAKAT), the Confederation of
associated tribes of Katanga.
It was fed on anti-Luba fears
and nursed the ideas of secession
to form a separate state of Eastern
Congo. Tshombe plotted to break up
Congo. In sharp contrast, Stanleyville,
the third major centre was more
heterogeneous. That is, the politics of
ethnicity, suspicion and machination
were less sharp. The dominant gure
was Patrice Lumumba.
Lumumba, though radical, was a
nationalist committed to Congo Unity.
He formed the Movement National
Congolese’ (MNC-L) party.
As 1960 approached MNC-L
gained ground. Lumumba established
alliances elsewhere in the country but
with little support from Tshombe and
Kasavubu.
In May 1960, the DRC held a
general election to usher in a post
independence government. The
election atmosphere was tense and
complex given the ethnic divisions
and suspicions among leading parties
and politicians. The MNC-L won the
largest number of seats. However,
no party had a clear majority.
Lumumba became Prime-Minister
with Kasavubu as president in a
coalition government. Despite the
rivalry between various parties, they
came to an agreement in a round table
conference that Congo be granted
independence. On 30
th
June1960
Congo attained independence from
Belgium.
Lumumba became the dominant
national politician. In the independence
speech, Lumumba talked of the ills of
racism, oppression and exploitation
Fig. 6.3: The late Patrice Lumumba; was a
dominant gure in Stanleyville.
Fig. 6.1: Joseph
Kasavubu led Abako.
Fig. 6.2: Moishe
Tshombe; formed
CONAKAT.
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128
under the Belgian yoke. The Belgian
King and the Premier also present
felt insulted. The Belgians felt that
Lumumba was a ‘madman’ who had
to be eliminated.
The chaotic ethnic situation in
Congo, with 60 different ethnic
groups, the hostile and suspicious
relations among leaders, the attitude
of the colonial power, Belgium, set a
stage for what came to be known as
the Congo crisis.
The other problem that Congo
faced was the lack of preparedness
of the people for independence.
The Belgians did not prepare the
people of Congo to face the demands
and challenges of independence. It
seemed the Belgians were unwilling
to grant DRC independence. This
was irrespective of the world mood
for decolonisation. Independence
was abrupt. Africans were not ready
to assume leadership and decision
making roles.
The first major crisis was the
mutiny of the African soldiers in
the army against the Belgians.
The Africans were opposed to the
continued leadership of the whites in
the army. Whites controlled the army
as commanders and senior ofcers.
The Belgian government responded
by using its army to quell the mutiny
and protect Belgian citizens and
their property. The Belgian army
bombed the coastal town of Matadi.
This angered African soldiers who
retaliated by slaughtering many
Belgian civilians. Tension was high
and a state of lawlessness and disorder
set in. P oliticians became increasingly
discredited for the inability to manage
the affairs and matters of the state.
Patrice Lumumba who was then the
Prime Minister and Joseph Kasavubu,
the President, broke relations with
Belgium. Whereas the MNC-L party
had been for a unitary government,
the other parties like the CONAKAT
led by Moishe Tshombe favoured
a federal state. There arose conict
between Tshombe and Lumumba.
Tshombe came from the mineral
rich Katanga region. In July 1960, he
declared the Katanga secession. In
August 1960, he was elected President
of Katanga by a regional assembly.
There was breakdown of law and
order posing a great challenge to the
Lumumba government.
In the crisis that followed the
Belgians supported Tshombe against
Lumumba. This was followed by a
secession threat from Kasai led by
Albert Karonji. The region’s leaders
wanted to be independent from
the rest of Congo. The government
appealed to the United Nations for
military assistance to enable it put
down the rebellions. The UN sent in
troops to Congo. The UN policy of not
interfering in the internal affairs of
member states led to a mere lukewarm
help.
Within the government, Kasavubu
and Lumumba were political
antagonists. They had their internal
squabbles. It had been evidently clear
that Lumumba and Kasavubu did not
share similar political ideals. Lumumba
was a radical while Kasavubu was
a conservative. This led to Patrice
Lumumba’s assassination in January
1961. Tshombe was implicated in the
murder.
When Lumumba was assasinated,
his followers pulled out of government,
retreated to Orientale Province and
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128
formed their own government. They
started a guerilla movement aimed
at dislodging Kasavubu from power.
By December 1960, Congo was
in total confusion. Katanga was
under Tshombe, Kisangani under
Lumumba and Kasai under Mobutu’s
commissioners. Each region had its
own government and army.
In September 1960, Mobutu, a
commander-in-chief of the armed
forces had taken over power from
the civilians, but handed it over it to
President Kasavubu by early 1961.
The recipe for armed confrontation
was in place. However, before ghting
could break out, a national leaders’
meeting was organised in July 1961.
Tshombe refused to send
representatives. Nevertheless a new
national coalition government was
formed under Cyrill Adoula.
Under this arrangement, Gizenga
who was one of Lumumba’s
followers, was given the post of
deputy Prime Minister. This brought
about temporary peace and stability.
Inspite of this, a rift emerged between
Adoula and Gizenga.
Mobutu’s commissioners in
Leopoldville had an upper hand
over the secessionist government
in Stanleyville. The Leopoldville
government remained the only
internationally recognised
government. By 1963, Katanga had
been brought back within the Congo
Republic.
Nonetheless, the differences
between Kasavubu (President)
Tshombe (Prime-minister) and the
Lumumba group under Gizenga
remained unresolved.
The military under Mobutu had
all along been quiet but were keen
spectators of the confusion in the
various civilian governments. They
witnessed the power conflicts and
struggles. Taking advantage of this
perpetual confusion, Joseph Mobutu,
Commander-in-Chief of the armed
forces organised a bloodless coup in
November 1965.
Congo under Mobutu
Mobutu convinced the world that
no civilian government was able to
bring peace and stability in Congo.
He established a totalitarian and
undemocratic
regime, a
measure he
was convinced
would bring
law and order
in Congo. He
reformed the
government by
changing the
constitution
and stripping
it of its powers. He disbanded the
federal system. Local assemblies that
had been in operation since 1963 in
Katanga were also disbanded.
For effective administration, he
reduced the provinces to eight and
all the civil servants were to be
appointed by the central government.
In 1967, Mobutu declared that Congo
would have only one political party.
He founded a party known as the
Movement Populaire de la Revolution
(MPR) or the Movement for Popular
Revolution. He was the absolute head
of the party.
As a result of the constitutional
changes introduced in 1978, the party
Fig. 6.4: The late Joseph
Mobutu; took over power
through a coup.
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130
was more powerful than parliament.
Mobutu argued that under such
a party, national unity would be
nurtured, promoted and sustained.
However, by the 1990’s, a wind of
change was blowing in the African
continent. The single party totalitarian
and uncompromising regimes that
had benefited from the C old W ar,
were now being called upon to adopt
multipartyism, good governance,
transparency and accountability.
Mobutu’s regime in Zaire was not
spared. Various opposition groups
emerged and organised a national
convention. They demanded for a
new constitution and positive political
reforms.
By 1993, these wrangles, demands
and pro-democratic manoeuvers were
going on but Mobutu would not
give in. H is greatest rival, Etiene
Tshishekedi, whom Mobutu appointed
and sacked several times as P rime
M inister, led anti-Mobutu forces
against bad governance. This, however,
prepared ground for a military coup
against Mobutu led by Laurent Kabila
in 1997.
Fig. 6.5: The late Laurent Kabila; overthrew
Mobutu.
Mobutu was overthrown and went
into exile where he died a humiliated
person.
The Congo crisis continued to
plague the country, for in 2001, Laurent
Kabila was shot by his bodyguards.
Confusion reigned again until his son
Joseph Kabila was appointed to head
the government of the Democratic
Republic of Congo.
Joseph Kabila formed a
government of national unity
which included members of the
opposition parties.
Fig. 6.6: Joseph Kabila; took over power from
his father Laurent Kabila.
In 2003, a new constitution was
introduced. Following a referendum
in 2005, recommendations were
made for the rst post-independence
elections. The elections were held
in 2006. Joseph Kabila was elected
president to serve for another term.
Economic developments
(i) After years of ghting, conict,
confusion and stagnation, from
1960-1964, mining was expanded.
DRC mined copper, uranium
and chrome among others. The
period thereafter saw Mobutu
nationalising industries. There
was some noticeable increase
in revenue leading to few
development programmes being
undertaken.
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130
(vii)
The DRC relies not only on
her minerals for economic
development and wealth, but
also the manufacturing sector. It
produces textiles, cement and other
xed products.
(viii)
Increasingly, there was lack of
revenue at the local level making
it difficult for the government
to function. This discouraged
producers who felt that there
was no need to produce wealth
for others. In an attempt to
improve this sad state of affairs,
the government came up with
what is known as parallel economy
or black marketeering. This led
to the smuggling of goods across
the borders. Corruption became
rampant and since the government
had no control over this so called
second economy, it earned no
revenue from it. This had adverse
and devastating effects on public
revenue. Due to the haphazard and
unpredictable economic policies
of Mobutu, corruption became
deeply entrenched in public service
delivery. The government had no
clear focus or consistent national
economic policies to guide planners,
investors or administrators.
(ix) During the Angolan war, the
DRC railway transport was
frequently disrupted thereby
adversely affecting her already
ailing economy.
(x) The beginning of the 1990’s
witnessed many revolts resulting
from unpaid salaries. This coupled
with the poor government
nancial policies led Mobutu to
order for the printing of notes to
pay soldiers. This led to clashes
between rioting soldiers and
(ii) In 1966, all foreign mining and
plantation companies were to
move their headquarters to
Kinshasa, the capital of DRC.
Some, however, rejected the
idea. The Union Miniere (Union
Miners) was taken over by the
state and its assets assumed by
the government.
(iii) The government also encouraged
foreign investments as revenue
from mining increased. The
government diverted some funds
to agricultural development thus
food production increased more
than ever before. Transport and
communication systems were
also expanded and improved by
the construction of more roads,
railways and expanding water
transport. This led to further
expansion in mining with the
government being more involved
through state corporations.
(iv) From 1973, DRC witnessed an
economic slump due to high oil
prices. Copper prices fell and
for more than a decade it did not
recover.
(v) The DRC also faced heavy
external debt. The debts were
in most cases much higher than
her domestic savings. By the late
1980’s, the country was involved
in a major diplomatic row with
Belgium over the use of economic
assistance given to the country.
Although Mobutu rejected these
accusations, the relations between
these countries became very cold.
(vi) The DRC also suffered from
escalated inflation rates.
It experienced problems with
the government failing on loan
repayment.
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133
132
traders who were refusing to
accept the new notes.
The DRC is therefore a good
example of failure by a state
to formulate and implement
viable economic policies. By the
time Mobutu was overthrown,
the country’s economy had
deteriorated to the level of virtual
decay.
Social developments
(i) At independence, the DRC had
not expanded its education sector.
After 1966 Mobutu expanded
education especially at the
primary and secondary level.
(ii) The health services were also
improved.
(iii) In 1971, Mobutu introduced the
“Authenticity Programme of
Indigenous Cultural Revival”.
It involved basically the change
from foreign names to indigenous
ones. This populist undertaking
temporarily caused Mobutu to
be liked by the African people
in Congo. The country was
renamed Zaire and cities with
foreign names were given African
names. For example, Leopoldville,
Elizabethville, Stanleyville became
Kinshasa, Lubumbashi and
Kisangani respectively. Zaireans
were compelled to drop western
Christian names and adopt
African ones. ‘Joseph’ Mobutu
dropped ‘Joseph’ and became
Mobutu Sese Seko.
(iv) The independent government also
supported sporting activities in
Zaire. Funds were set aside for
expanding sporting activities,
building stadia and other sports
facilities.
(v) As with the colonial Belgian
education system, music
continued to feature prominently
in the curriculum. Zairean or
Congolese music shows and
concerts became characteristic
modes of entertainment locally
and in the African and European
capitals like Nairobi, Paris and
Bonn respectively.
Zairean art and craft was also
rened and displayed in local and
international galleries.
Political, economic and social
developments in Tanzania
Tanzania came into existence in
1964 when Tanganyika merged with
the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba
to form the United Republic of
Tanzania. During the colonial period
Tanganyika was ruled by Germany
and thereafter Britain. The Islands
were under the Sultan.
The events that followed
independence revolved around the
birth of the new United Republic, the
formation of Chama Cha Mapinduzi,
the formulation and implementation
of Ujamaa policy and the African
liberation struggle.
The discussion that follows will
highlight the above issues. It will
also analyse the economic and social
developments in post-independent
Tanzania.
Political developments in
Tanzania
The political developments in
post independent Tanzania revolved
around events in Tanganyika and
Zanzibar. At independence Tanzania
consisted of two separate countries,
Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Tanganyika
became independent in 1961 under
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132
Mwalimu Julius Kabarage Nyerere
while Zanzibar became independent
in 1963 under the sovereignty of the
Sultan.
The Africans in Zanzibar became
dissatised with the dominance of
the Arabs in Zanzibar. Consequently
one month after independence in
January 1964, the Africans under
John Tito Okello, a Ugandan, staged a
revolution and seized power from the
Sultan. The Sultan and his associates
had to ee to exile. The leader of the
mainly African party, the Afro-Shirazi
party, Sheikh Abed Karume was
installed as head of the Revolutionary
Council of Zanzibar.
Fig. 6.7: The late Julius Nyerere; the rst
president of Tanzania.
In Tanganyika, there was an army
mutiny which occurred immediately
after the revolution in Zanzibar and
gave Nyerere an opportunity to
undertake major re-organisation in
the armed forces.
From the beginning of 1964,
negotiations began in earnest for a
political union between Zanzibar and
Tanganyika. On 22nd April, 1964
Tanganyika and Zanzibar formed
a political union called the United
Republic of Tanzania. Nyerere became
President and Karume the rst Vice-
President.
Fig. 6.8: Ali Hassan Mwinyi; took over from
Nyerere in 1985.
Rashid Kawawa from mainland
Tanzania became second Vice-
President.
According to the union constitution,
if a president was from the mainland,
the rst Vice-President was to come
from the islands (Zanzibar and Pemba)
and vice versa.
When Nyerere retired in 1985,
Ali Hassan Mwinyi from Zanzibar
succeeded him as president and Joseph
Warioba from mainland Tanzania
became the rst Vice-President.
Warioba was also given the portfolio
of Prime Minister with Idris Wakil
from Zanzibar assuming the position
of second V ice P resident. Although
the union has experienced a few
internal conflicts with the people
of the island complaining of being
treated as second rate Tanzanians,
the union continues to be a successful
attempt toward regional co-operation
in Africa. It is one of the enviable
and successful political unions on
the African continent. One internal
problem that threatened the union
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134
was when Zanzibar unilaterally
joined the Muslim League without the
support of the mainland members of
parliament. This caused outrage and
threatened to break the union.
Another significant development
was the creation of Chama Cha
Mapinduzi (CCM) in 1967 following the
merger between Tanganyika African
National Union (TANU) and the Afro-
Shirazi Party. The CCM was seen as a
revolutionary party. Its rst chairman
was Julius Nyerere. During the
period of the 1970’s and the 1980’s
CCM remained the only political party
in Tanzania.
In 1967, Ujamaa was declared
as the ideology to guide Tanzania’s
development. The Arusha Declaration
had four main elements:
(a) Self-reliance; the need to use
local resources and avoidance
of relying on foreign aid.
(b) Ujamaa; building socialist
society based on African
traditions of the family and
participation of each for the
good of all.
(c) Human equality; with removal
of all forms of discrimination
based on wealth, class, status,
race or creed.
(d) Control by the people of all
major means of production.
To the above end, the Tanzanians
were each called upon to do national
service and to sacrice in the cause
of nation building. Tanzania was
now set to build a socialist society
where everybody including the youth
would be involved in responsible and
productive engagement.
The government therefore set up
Ujamaa villages in which people
would live and work together. It was
expected that with people living and
working together, production would
be enhanced and services would be
cheaply and conveniently provided
than when they were scattered over
an expansive region. Ujamaa villages
were expected to foster a spirit of
co-operation among people working
together in communal tasks. Julius
Nyerere in 1970 had however predicted
that:
“if the members of the village have not
understood that some of their work will
not bring immediate results, or if they
have not wholeheartedly agreed to prepare
this heritage for their descendants they
will get disgruntled when the return for
their labour is very small.”
By 1985, as predicted, Ujamaa
village operational level was
a frustrating failure to the CCM
government.
The Arusha Declaration also led to
the nationalisation of essential services
such as manufacturing industries,
insurance companies and banks.
These services were brought under the
people’s management. However, lack
of management expertise and support
from international scal policies led
to failure of this nationalisation and
socialist programmes.
In 1973, the CCM also planned to
transfer the capital from Dar-es-salaam
to Dodoma. A number of government
and other political functions are held
at Dodoma. Dodoma was considered
more central to serve the vast and
extensive Tanzania.
Tanzania has since independence
supported the activities of the East
African Community. Nyerere’s
concept of the East African Community
was that it would enable the people of
East Africa to plan together, work
together, harmonise national services
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135
134
and development within the region.
The East African Community has
its headquarters in Arusha with
its services decentralised to various
member states.
Fig. 6.9: The late Idi Amin; he invaded
Tanzania.
In 1979, Uganda, under Idi Amin
invaded Tanzania with the aim of
annexing the ‘Lowero Triangle’
situated within Tanzania on the border
of Tanzania and Uganda. Tanzanian
troops, with Nyerere as P resident
and C ommander-in- C hief of the
Armed Forces repulsed Amin’s forces,
pursued them into Ugandan territory,
drove out Amin and installed a new
government.
The war cost Tanzania many lives
and millions of shillings. It also earned
Nyerere bitter criticism from some
OAU member states who may have
viewed the action as a violation of
OAU’s principle of non-interference in
the internal affairs of member states.
However, it laid the foundation for
African union’s spirit of ensuring
that all dictatorial regimes that violate
the principles of good governance are
eliminated.
Tanzania under Mwalimu Julius
Nyerere also had a positive and
significant feature on the African
political scene. This was especially
the case with her commitment to
supporting various African liberation
movements. Tanzania sacrificed
considerable material, financial
and human resources to support
armed liberation struggles in Angola,
Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Namibia and
South Africa. This Tanzanian stand
did cost her a great deal in the eyes of
the occupying colonial powers.
Fig. 6.10: Benjamin William Mkapa; took over
power from Mwinyi as president of Tanzania.
Nyerere retired as president of
Tanzania in 1985. He was succeeded
by Ali Hassan Mwinyi who was re-
elected president in 1990.
Following the introduction of
multi-partism in 1995, elections were
held and Benjamin Mkapa was elected
president. He was re-elected president
in the year 2000.
In 2005 Mkapa retired. Jakaya
Kikwete was elected president of
Tanzania.
Economic developments in
Tanzania
As discussed earlier, the Arusha
Declaration laid a great emphasis
on self-reliance. In the very initial
stages, there was noticeable increase
in agricultural production both for
export and domestic consumption.
However, the period after 1970
witnessed a number of challenges.
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136
Prolonged drought created a serious
drop in production of food and cash
crops. Secondly, a number of peasant
farmers lost enthusiasm in communal
production ventures as propounded
by Ujamaa. This was made even worse
by the then declining international
prices on some of Tanzania’s leading
cash crops, like coffee and sisal.
These price declines led to reduced
production efforts and consequently
low yields.
The nationalisation of various
institutions of investment and
production was misinterpreted.
Instead of doubling up the efforts to
improve performance and production,
a number of parastatal chiefs adopted
a carefree attitude. This adversely
affected the production of goods.
Foreign investors were not sure
of the implications of Nyerere’s
policies. They kept away from making
investment commitments in Tanzania.
By 1985, the government was
beginning to see the need to relax its
economic policies. Private investment
and enterprise was encouraged.
When Nyerere retired the same year
he admitted that the policy of Ujamaa
was a failed experiment.
With the adoption of the socialist
ideology, Tanzania developed positive
relations with the People’s Republic
of China. It is this relationship that
led to the construction of Tazara
Railway linking Tanzania and Zambia.
This Chinese sponsored project was
completed in 1975. It helped in the
transportation of goods from Kapiri
Mposhi in the land locked Zambia to
the Tanzanian port of Dar es Salaam.
China provided both technical and
nancial assistance.
The post independence era
also witnessed the growth and
development of small scale industries
such as textile, cement, steel and tyre
factories. This greatly boosted the post
independence economy of Tanzania.
Tanzania is a member of regional
economic blocs namely COMESA
and the East African Community.
These have assisted Tanzania in
the promotion and facilitation of
development in industry, commerce
and agriculture.
Social developments in
Tanzania
It has been argued that, although
Tanzania may have experienced
problems in the area of economic
development, she achieved a great
deal in the area of social development.
(i) The education facilities and
opportunities were expanded. In
1977 primary education was made
free and became compulsory in
1978.
(ii) In 1961, Dar-es-Salaam University
was founded as the highest
institution of learning. It later
became a constituent college of
the University of East Africa and
a full edged university in 1971.
Later on, Sokoine Agricultural
University was started mainly to
offer agriculture based programmes.
(iii) The Arusha on Declaration
emphasised agriculture and
technical education. These were
basic to the policy of education
for self-reliance.
(iv) Tanzania laid emphasis on adult
education. The expansion of adult
education programmes made
Tanzania have the highest level
of literacy in Africa. In adult
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education programmes emphasis
was placed on practical knowledge
and skills, human rights, political
obligations of a citizen and good
governance.
(v) Kiswahili as a national language
and a medium of instruction
was popularised. The linguistic
department at the University of
Dar-es-Salaam was mandated to
undertake research with a view
of improving the quality and
standard of Kiswahili. Kiswahili
has become the single most
important unifying factor in
Tanzania. It has wiped out the
concept of ethnicity in Tanzania.
(vi) Moreover, the government made
efforts to expand health facilities
and services. Mhimbili hospital
in Dar-es-Salaam was expanded
to referral status. A number
of hospitals, health centres,
dispensaries and clinics were built
mainly in rural settings. This has
enhanced health service delivery.
(vii)
Right from independence, the
government had a deliberate policy
towards women empowerment.
Women education opportunities
were expanded and prioritised.
Women were appointed to senior
positions in the government.
Tanzania has a large number
of women in P arliament with
some serving in the C abinet.
Political, Economic and
social challenges in Africa
since independence
In 1994, Nelson Mandela said, “There
is no easy road to freedom. We must act
together as united people for the birth of
a new world”. The journey to freedom
in Africa was long and tedious. South
Africa had been the only country still
under foreign or white domination
by then.
Independence, however, came and
set in its own challenges. During the
struggle for independence nationalists
and freedom ghters were concerned
with political independence. It was
assumed that issues of economic and
social re-organisation, reconstruction
and development would be tackled
after political independence. Kwame
Nkrumah of Ghana had led the clarion
call that “seek ye political kingdom and
the rest will follow.”
During the struggle for
independence, leaders had made
various promises such as improved
standards of living, access to various
economic benefits, jobs, education,
medical care and loans to open up
business ventures. The Africans’
expectations were high. However,
there were political, economic and
social challenges for independent
African governments to deal with.
Political challenges
The political challenges were as
follows:
(i) The articial national boundaries
created during the colonial era
was challenge. The boundaries
were set and created without
regard to ethnic composition. This
resulted in the placement of an
ethnic group into two countries,
for example, the Abaluyia were
placed in Kenya and Uganda, the
Maasai in Kenya and Tanzania
while the Somali were placed in
Somalia and Kenya. In some
cases, this led to strained ethnic
relations leading into armed
conict. This has been witnessed
in Rwanda, Somali, DRC, Sudan
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138
and Nigeria. There have been
threats of secession in eastern
Nigeria, North Eastern Kenya and
the Katanga region of DRC.
(ii) The maintenance of peace and
stability have been challenges
to African governments. After
independence a number of
countries experienced military
coups. Some experienced
mutinies or attempted military
take over of elected civilian
governments. Instability has
resulted from greed and rivalry
for power among ruling groups
and individuals. In other cases,
instability has been as a result
of failure by governments to
establish transparent, accountable
and democratic governance. Some
African regimes have tended to
be dictatorial and tyrannical. A
number have mismanaged their
economies through corruption.
All these have caused tension and
frustration among citizens.
(iii) The adopting of multi-party
systems of government in most
African states has led to intensied
and worsening internal conicts.
(iv) Neo-colonialism has also been
a challeng e to African states.
Years after the attainment of
independence, the former colonial
powers have continued to inuence
policies in their former colonies.
There have been cases in the past
when they have openly supported
unpopular leaders, for example,
Mobutu S ese Seko of the DRC.
These leaders are later abandoned
by the foreign governments once
their usefulness has been outlived.
vi) Ideological differences among
leadershas threatened the stability
of many African countries.
Economic challenges
Apart from political challenges and
problems, independent African
governments have had to deal with
economic issues and constraints. These
have their roots in the social economic
arrangements developed during the
colonial period. Independent African
governments had to set deliberate
economic agenda geared towards
building strong and viable economies.
These would consequently lead to
improving living standards, reducing
poverty, unemployment and address
the social and economic inequalities
between individuals and regions. The
colonial economic structures were
designed to benet the foreigners.
Africans were denied opportunities
to acquire and accumulate capital.
They had little or nothing to invest in
protable undertakings. There were
many challenges that independent
African governments had to deal with.
These included:
(i) Setting up structures to Africanise
ownership of business and
industrial ventures which were
previously in the hands of non-
Africans.
(ii) Enabling Africans to access loans
to purchase businesses, farms
and farm inputs. This was meant
to alleviate poverty.
(iii) African governments inherited
economies that were heavily
dependent on the economies of
the coloniser’s mother countries.
For example, the trading patterns
tended to favour foreigners.
(iv) Many of the independent African
economies relied on agriculture,
a sector that was dominated by
Europeans too. Sometimes the
agriculture depended on one
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138
resources to invest in the social and
economic structures. Sometimes
due to low salaries even the African
skilled labour was attracted to the
west where the economies were
strong.
(viii)
The African economies have
also tended to rely on loans
from the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund.
The developed countries also
give nancial support to African
development programmes. These
sources, however, have been
another source of frustration. The
investment conditions are at times
shifted unpredictably rendering
African governments’ investment
plans ineffective.
(ix) Political instability has also been a
factor in economic development.
The volume and ow of foreign
investment has tended to be higher
in countries with predictable
political peace and stability.
Western European countries have
also invested more in countries that
have adopted a political philosophy
close to their own. For example,
countries with a philosophy
leaning towards capitalism
attract more investment from
the western nanciers than those
with socialist-oriented political
inclinations.
(x) Poor infrastructure also affects
economic development.
Independent African
governments have continued to
experience the problems of the
poor state of roads and other
forms of communication. The
level of information technology
in most African countries is
wanting.
main cash crop. For example,
cocoa in Ghana, coffee in Kenya
and cotton in Sudan. Even where
there were mineral exports,
the concept of monoculture
was dominant, for example,
copper exports in Zambia. Such
economies were vulnerable
especially with the uctuation
in world prices. The uctuations
rendered the economies unstable
and unreliable.
(v) African states also inherited weak
and poor economies that were
not adequately diversied. There
was also lack of industrialisation.
They were forced to pay high
prices for imports leading to the
problem of unserviceable external
debt, scarcity of foreign exchange
and unfavourable balance of
payments.
Fig.6.11: Refugees; countries that host them
strain their resources.
(vi) The independent African
economies have also witnessed
unpredictable and uncontrolled
inationary trends. This has led
to the continued decline of the
value of their currencies.
(vii) The governments also experienced
problems with regard to human
and financial resources. They
had inadequate skilled human
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Fig. 6.12: Poor infrastructure such as this road
is a challenge in Africa.
(xi) Another significant challenge
to economic development in
African countries is environmental
degradation. This includes
pollution of air, water and soil
erosion. The emission of industrial
pollutants and wastes into the
rivers, lakes, oceans and the land
is a major threat to terrestrial
and aquatic life. Environmental
protection is a concern of
African governments. Various
governments have embarked
on environmental conservation
measures such as afforestation,
building of gabions and contour
farming, among others.
(xii)
Famine caused by locust invasion,
floods, drought, unrealiable
rainfall wildlife interference
and pests and diseases among
other factors affects economic
development.
In August-September 2004, large
locust swarms swept through
Southern Mauritania, Northern
Senegal, Mali, Niger and some the
Darfur region in Sudan. The crisis
negatively affected the export of
crops such as beans, watermelons
and mangoes from Senegal to
Europe.
Starving communities suffering
from various nutritional deciencies
cannot be expected to signicantly
contribute to economic growth.
(xiii) High petroleum costs have
adversely affected the economies
of most African countries. Very few
countries posses this important
resource and therefore a lot of
money is channelled towards its
purchase.
(xiv) Most African countries have
experienced rapid population
growth which has also
overstretched food supplies.
(xv) Unwarranted military
expenditures: Nearly all African
states spend a large amounts
of funds on their military stock
of weapons, equipment and
personnel recruitment, yet there
is hardly any war to justify such
expenditure.
Social Challenges
Independent African countries have
experienced a number of social
challenges. These include:
(i) The majority of the people do not
have access to clean water. Women
in most cases have to fetch and
carry water from contaminated
rivers, streams and wells over
long distances. This has led to
the frequent outbreaks of various
waterborne diseases such as
typhoid, diarrhoea and cholera.
The need to provide clean water
to all in Africa is paramount.
(ii) The continent has been severly
affected by pandemics like the HIV
and AIDS scourge. Productive
members of the society have
succumbed to the pandemic.
Huge financial resources have
been allocated to HIV and AIDS
sensitisation and care programmes.
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140
A number of countries continue to
record and handle polio, smallpox,
tuberculosis and malaria cases.
Poor health as a social issue
impacts negatively on Africa’s
economic development.
Fig. 6.13: Floods affect development.
(iii)Statistics indicate that the majority
of the people in Africa have poor
housing facilities. In urban areas,
many people live in slums devoid
of clean water, sanitation and
health care facilities.
Fig. 6.14: A slum; many people live here
without basic amenities.
(iv) Africa also experiences rapid
population growth. This affects
the quality of the services the
governments can provide. The
various governments have
therefore integrated family
planning programmes in their
development plans and economic
recovery strategies.
(v) Language development and
specific language use has been
a challenge to many African
countries. Some countries have
adopted the languages of their
colonial power (English, French)
as both the ofcial and the national
languages. Other countries have
adopted one of the local languages
as their national language, for
example, Kiswahili in Kenya and
Tanzania. In most cases there has
been conict on which language
to adopt.
(vi) The provision of relevant and
appropriate education to the
people has been another social
challenge. The Universal Charter
on Human Rights obligates all
governments to provide education
for all. Illiteracy and ignorance
affect development. Education
for all guarantees provision and
acquisition of knowledge, skills and
attitudes that can enhance survival,
co-existence, environmental
protection, good governance,
gender equity and human rights.
(vii) The status of African women
in society especially in the area
of equity has been a big social
challenge. Various forums have
raised this concern with the Forum
for African Women Educationists
(FAWE) being one of them.
Most independent African
governments have adopted and
implemented afrmative action
plans to improve the welfare of
women in society.
(viii)
Poverty and unequal distribution
of resources has contributed
to increase in crime leading
to insecurity in most African
countries.
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PB
142
Activities
1. (a) In a class panel discussion, have three groups each having a rappoteur on
(i) Political challenges that have faced DRC.
(ii) Political challenges that have faced Tanzania.
(iii) Economic and Social challenges facing Africa.
(b) Watch a relevant video.
2. Debate on the motion “Independent African governments have faced more political
than economic challenges.”
3. Organise groups for class discussion on:
(a) Problems facing the girl-child in school.
(b) HIV and AIDS pandemic and how it has affected political social and
economic developments in Africa.
(c) Effects of environmental degradation on African countries.
Exercise
1. Analyse the economic problems the DRC experienced between 1960 and
1990.
2. Trace six major political developments in Tanzania since independence.
3. Explain the social developments that have taken place in Tanzania since
independence.
4. Identify six economic constraints African countries have had to deal with
since independence.
5. Analyse the social developments in the DRC since independence.
6. Discuss the political challenges that African countries have faced since
independence.
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PB
Unit
7
DEVOLVED GOVERNMENT
Meaning of devolved
government
Devolved government means:
(i) Decentralising state management
organs, services and functions
from the national government of
Kenya to the counties.
(ii) Recognising the right of
communities in counties to
manage their own affairs, and
to further development while
fostering national unity.
(iii) Providing for county government
so as to enhance self-government
and participation of the people
at grassroots level. This would
enable the people to make
decisions about themselves.
Reasons for devolution
(i) The devolved government as
stated earlier allows people living
in a particular area (county)
to make their own decisions
on matters that concern them
directly.
(ii) Devolution makes democracy
stronger.
(iii) It gives people more say.
A County government will ensure that
resources are fairly distributed across
the county.
The fairness in devolution will be
achieved in the following ways:
(i) Each county will be given a fair
share of the money and resources
that the state has.
(ii) The equitable share of resources
will address imbalances existing
in areas such as health facilities,
roads and water services.
(iii) There will be an independent
commission to protect and
guarantee the right to each
county to a fair share of national
funds. This is the Commission of
Revenue Allocation (CRA).
(iv) The county governments will also
be allowed by laws passed by the
national government to levy taxes
on property and entertainment
activities.
Objectives of devolution of
government
The objectives of devolution of
government are to:
(i) Promote democratic and
accountable exercise of power.
(ii) Foster national unity while
recognising and appreciating
diversity.
(iii) Give powers of self-governance
and enhance grassroots
participation of the people in the
exercise of the powers of the state
and in making decisions affecting
them.
(iv) Recognise the right of
communities to manage their own
affairs for purposes of enhancing
their development.
(v) Protect and promote interests
and rights of minorities and
marginalised communities.
(vi) Promote social and economic
development by providing near
and easily accessible services
throughout Kenya.
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(vii) Ensure equitable sharing of
national and local resources
throughout Kenya.
(viii) Facilitate the decentralisation
of state organs, their functions
and services from the national
government.
(ix) Enhance checks and balances and
separation of powers.
Principles of devolved
government
County governments are established
under the constitution of Kenya. This
will be based on the following three
principles:
1. A County government shall be
based on democratic principles
and the separation of powers.
2. A County government shall
have reliable sources of revenue
to enable them to govern and
deliver services effectively.
3. A County government shall have
no more than two-thirds (2/3) of
members of the same gender in
each of the representative bodies
such as the county assembly or
county executive committees.
Structure and functions of
County Government
The constitution created 47 counties
out of the previous 8 provinces as
follows:
1. Nakuru
2. Kajiado
3. Kericho
4. Bomet
5. Samburu
6. Uasin Gishu
7. Narok
8. Laikipia
9. Turkana
10. West Pokot
11. Baringo
12. Trans-Nzoia
13. Elgeyo-Marakwet
14. Nandi
15. Kiambu
16. Murang’a
17. Nyeri
18. Kirinyaga
19. Nyandarua
20. Makueni
21. Kitui
22. Embu
23. Tharaka-Nithi
24. Meru
25. Isiolo
26. Marsabit
27. Machakos
28. Garissa
29. Wajir
30. Mandera
31. Vihiga
32. Kakamega
33. Busia
34. Bungoma
35. Mombasa
36. Kwale
37. Kili
38. Taita Taveta
39. Lamu
40. Tana River
41. Siaya
42. Kisumu
43. Nyamira
44. Migori
45. Kisii
46. Homa Bay
47. Nairobi
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The structure of County
Government
A county government will consist of:
(i) County Assembly
(ii) County Executive Committee
(iii) County Public Service
(i) County Assembly
Composition of the County
Assembly
A County Assembly will consist of:
1. Members elected by registered
voters of the wards in a general
election.
Fig. 7.1: Map of Kenya showing counties.
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146
2. The number of special seats
necessary to ensure that no
more that two-thirds of the
membership of the assembly are
of the same gender.
3. Members of the marginalised
groups including persons with
disabilities, minorities and the
youth as prescribed by an act of
parliament.
4. The Speaker, who is an ex-ofcio
member.
Functions of the County
Assembly
The functions of the County Assembly
include:
(i) Making laws for the effective
performance of the county
government.
(ii) Exercising oversight over the
County Executive Committee.
(iii) Receiving and approving plans
and policies for:
• Managing and exploiting the
county resources.
• Developing and managing
infrastructure and
institutions.
In particular, county governments will
oversee the following:
• Agriculture (crop and animal
husbandry).
• Fisheries
• County health services, for
example ambulance services.
• Cultural activities.
• Public entertainment and public
amenities.
• County transport and street
lighting.
• Trade and development
regulations such as managing
markets.
• County planning and
development.
• Pre-primary education, youth
polytechnics, homecraft centres
and child care facilities.
• Implementation of specific
government policies on natural
resources, environmental
conservation and waste
management.
• County public works and
services.
Process of law making
• The constitution of Kenya
recognises the County Assembly
as a Legislative Authority. It can
initiate, debate and make laws.
• Such laws are, if passed and
endorsed by the relevant organs
of the Assembly such as the
Governor, only applicable to the
respective county.
• Members of the County Assembly,
the Governor, Deputy Governor
and Assembly members can
originate motions for debate.
Some of them may be procedural
while others will be of legal nature.
Those that are substantive and of
legal nature on specic areas of
operations will be county laws.
• Before being implemented,
some of the laws may have to
be forwarded to the Cabinet
Secretary in charge of County
governments for review, fine-
tuning and harmonisation. This
would be to ensure that they are in
harmony with the constitution, the
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laws of the land and operations of
neighbouring counties.
• County legislation does not take
effect unless published in the
Gazette.
• Parliament has legislative
authority over County Assembly
in areas such as governance of the
capital city, other cities and urban
areas. It is parliament which
transfers powers and functions
of one level of government to
another. This includes transferring
Legislative powers to the County
Assembly, manner of appointment
and removal from ofce of persons
serving in the county government.
Parliament also legislates on the
suspension of assemblies and
executive committees.
• In principle, county laws are
geared toward ensuring effective
performance, powers and
functions of County Government.
• The progress of making laws
in the county allow a similar
procedure used in the national
assembly. Bills are prepared by
other relevant persons. They are
then debated upon in the county
assembly during the rst, second
and third reading stages. There
must be a two-thirds majority
approval. The county Governor
ascends the bill to make them
binding in the county.
(ii)County Executive
Committee
The County Executive authority
is vested in the County Executive
Committee.
Powers and functions of the
Governor
The powers and functions of the
governor are as follows:
1. The Governor is the Chief
Executive ofcer of the county.
2. The Governor nominates the
members of the County Executive
Committee with the approval of
the County Assembly.
3. The Governor presides over the
appointment of public servants
at the county government level.
4. The Governor ensures that
County laws are implemented
as legislated.
5. As the Chief Executive, the
Governor manages and co-
ordinates all county operations.
6. The Governor, as part of the
executive ensures that the
County Assembly is provided
with reports on matters relating
to the county, and that these
reports are acted on.
7. The Governor oversees the
preparation of proposed
legislation for consideration and
debate by the County Assembly.
8. The Governor receives and
entertains guests to the county.
9. The Governor oversees the
management of county revenue,
in consultation with the county
executive and with the approval
of the County Assembly.
Functions of the Deputy
Governor
1. The Deputy Governor is the
Deputy Chief Executive. He or
she shall deputises the governor
in the execution of the duties of
the Governor.
2. The Deputy Governor acts as the
Governor in the absence of the
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county Governor.
3. The Deputy Governor performs
duties delegated to the ofce of
the Deputy Governor.
Composition and function of
the Executive Committee
Composition
The County Executive Committee
consists of:
(i) The County Governor
(ii) the Deputy County Governor.
(iii) Members appointed by the
County Governor, with the
approval of the Assembly, from
among persons who are not
members of the assembly.
The number of the members of the
committee should not exceed:
• One third of the number of
members of the County
Assembly, if the assembly has
less than thirty members.
• Ten, if the assembly has thirty or
more members.
The County Deputy Governor is the
running mate of the Governor during
the general election. He or she, like
the other members of the executive
committee is accountable to the
County Governor for the performance
of his or her functions and exercise of
his or her powers.
If a vacancy arises in the ofce of the
County Governor, the members of
the County Executive Committee
cease to hold office. However, the
executive committee of the county
as last constituted remains in ofce
until a new executive committee is
constituted.
Functions
The County Executive Committee
performs the following functions:
(i) Implements county legislation
(laws).
(ii) Implements national legislation
to the extent that the legislation
requires.
(iv) Manages and co-ordinates
the functions of the county
administration and departments.
(iii) Prepares proposed legislation for
consideration by the assembly.
(v) Provides the county assembly
with full and regular reports on
matters relating to the county.
The County Governor is directly
elected by the voters registered in
the county for a term of ve years.
If re-elected, he or she can serve for
another nal term of 5 years.
A Governor may not appoint members
of the executive committee from
members of the assembly. The
assembly must approve the choice
of the governor. In case it rejects the
governor’s choice, the governor must
choose another person.
(iii) County Public Service
County governments are required
to establish or abolish ofces in the
Public Service. However, this can only
be done within a framework of norms
and standards prescribed by an act of
parliament.
The county government appoints
persons to hold or act in these ofces
and conrm their appointments.
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The county government also exercises
disciplinary control of public service
ofcers within the county.
This should be in line with procedures
established by an Act of parliament.
Relationship between
national and county
government
Counties have their own governments
which are accountable to the people.
It is expected that the national
government respects the county
government. However, the national
government has the prescribed
responsibilities over counties. These
include the following:
(i) Parliament may pass laws that set
standards for the whole country
so that no county gives its people
poor services.
(ii) National government regulates
the way counties manage public
funds.
(iii) When and if a county is unable
to provide proper services, the
national government should
move in to support the county to
make sure that the required and
expected services are rendered to
the people.
(iv) In situations of conflict or
exceptional circumstances,
the president may suspend a
county government. However,
the Senate must ensure that the
suspension is not wrongly done.
A county government may not be
suspended for more than 90 days.
(v) There is need for county
governments to work closely
with the national government
to ensure efcient and smooth
delivery of services to the people.
(vi) The national government can
advance grants and loans to
county governments to enhance
their services.
(vii) The national government also
appoints some public servants to
serve in the county governments.
(viii)Some laws governing the
county governments passed in
parliament.
C hallenges facing county
governments and possible
solutions
There are a number of challenges that
county governments are likely to face
in Kenya. These are:
(i) People are not familiar with the
operations of such a government.
County government is a new
concept in Kenya.
(ii) Some counties are not well
endowed with both human and
financial resources. Without
these, performance of such
counties and the expected service
delivery is wanting.
(iii) Counties with large populations,
or are expansive in area may
experience considerable strain
on available resources.
(v) The chief executive of the county
is the governor. However there
has been conicts between the
ofce of the governor and the
senior members of the county
public service.
(vi) Corruption has escalated with
the establishment of county
governments
(viii)Some County government
leadership have been unwilling
to recruit non-locals as members
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of the county public service.
This may be irrespective of
qualification, skill and
experience required. The
concept of unity in diversity as
envisaged in the constitution
may be compromised. Ethnicity
and other parochial vices have
surfaced in county government
operations.
Possible solutions
(i) County government, being a
relatively new and unfamiliar
concept demand for the
county government leadership
to familiarise with similar
operations in countries such
as Uganda, South Africa and
Britain.
(ii) Where a county is not endowed
with the necessary or adequate
human and nancial resources,
the national government should
put in place deliberate and
focused affirmative resource
support. Equally, there is be need
for rigorous capacity building
programmes to be instituted.
(iii) County governments should also
design and execute programmes
for income generation.
Gradually, they should work
toward self-sustenance. County
leadership should be resourceful,
creative and innovative.
(iv) Counties with large populations
and those that are expansive
require special attention. A
resource and revenue allocation
formular should be designed
and executed to address these
disparities.
(v) In-service and training
programmes are required
to address areas of
conflict, disharmony and
underperformance in the County
Executive, County Assembly and
County Public Service.
(vi) To address the areas of
mismanagement of public
finance at county government
level, the Kenya Anti-Corruption
Commission should devolve
its monitoring activities to
county levels. Above all, county
government should embrace
attributes of sound leadership,
honesty and integrity.
(vii) To promote unity in diversity,
employment in public service
at senior levels should not be
localised. County governments
should, as a matter of policy
recruit senior public servants
across counties. What will be
required would be the desired
knowledge, skills, qualication,
experience and expertise. The
philosophy of unity in diversity
as was envisaged in devolved
government should not be
compromised.
(ix) A mechanism should be
developed and executed to
ensure that county government
standards are harmonised across
the board. Performance-based
management should be embraced
by all county governments.
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Activities
1. You have been identied by your political party as a candidate for the
post of County Governor. Prepare a speech focussing on what is expected
of a county government.
2. Imagine you were the Speaker of the County Assembly. Address the
assembly on the challenges the county is facing.
Exercise
1. Dene the term “devolved government”.
2. State ve objectives of devolution of government.
3. Explain the principles of devolved government.
4. Discuss the functions of the County Assembly.
5. Highlight the relationship between the national and county government.
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Unit
8
PUBLIC REVENUE AND
EXPENDITURE IN KENYA
The government of Kenya is
committed to providing services
and sustaining development in the
country. Its aim is to improve the
living standards and welfare of the
citizens. This can only be realised if
the government has money to nance
the services and development projects.
The government therefore has to raise
funds which are referred to as public
revenue. The use of this revenue
is termed as public expenditure.
Sourcing the money and spending it
is done according to a well designed
and agreed plan called a budget.
A budget serves specic purposes,
whether at national or county level of
government. They include:
(i) It spells out in detail the amount
and sources of national and
county revenue in a nancial or
scal year. The source may be
domestic or external.
(ii) It species expenditure allocated
to various projects and services.
(iii) A budget also differentiates
between recurrent and
development expenditure.
(iv) In the Kenyan situation, the
Cabinet Secretary in charge of
nance, the controller of budget
and the Commission of Revenue
Allocation ensure that the budget
is well balanced in terms of
revenue and expenditure. They
also distribute expenditure needs
equitably.
(v) A budget provides an
opportunity for the national
and county governments to
spell out fiscal policies that
will guide national and county
operations. These include what
and how much tax will be levied
on specic goods and services.
(vi) A budget forms the basis of
nancial monitoring by various
groups. These would include
parliament, County Assembly,
Anti-Corruption Commission
and the controller of budget
among others. This is to ensure
transparency, accountability
and integrity with regard to
utilisation of public nance.
(vii) A budget also indicates the
goods and services that may be
exempted from tax. This forms
the basis upon which national
and county tax structures and
levels are operationalised.
(viii) A budget provides a window for
explaining ination trends and
how they can be controlled.
This enables the country to attract
investors and benefits from
external trade. It creates investor
confidence by providing for a
favourable balance of trade.
(ix) Through supplementary
nance estimates, the national
and county governments put
in place measures to provide
goods and services for areas that
emerge with unique demands
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and requirements during the
scal year.
(x) A budget ensures that a nation or
county sets its priorities right in
relation to projects. This controls
mismanagement of the nancial
and material resources.
Sources of public revenue
With the budget in place, the
government starts the process of
sourcing for funds. The constitution
has established several funds for
the purposes of keeping the sourced
funds.
They include:
1. Equalisation fund
Half percent of all the revenue collected
is kept in this fund. Equalization fund
can only be used for providing basic
services like water, roads, health and
electricity to marginalised areas the
controller of budget is the approves
withdrawals from this fund..
2. Consolidation fund
All money raised by the government is
kept in this fund. This includes money
set aside by parliament or a state organ
for specific purposes. Money can
only be withdrawn from this fund if
appoved by the controller.
3. Revenue fund
This is a fund which stores money
raised or received by a county
government. Each county has a
revenue fund. The controller of budget
approves withdrawal from this fund.
4. Contingencies fund
This fund keeps money meant for
emergencies. Emergencies will be
discussed by the parliament to
determine whether they meet the
required threshold to be considered
a national disaster. If the parliament
passes that a situation qualifies to
be considered a national disaster,
the cabinet secretary of nance sets
approves withdrawal fro this fund.
I. National Government
The national government gets
revenue from the following
sources:
(a) Taxes
The bulk of government revenue is
from taxes. Taxes are compulsory
payments levied on individuals, local
and foreign companies as well as
state corporations. The government
also levies taxes on commodities,
transactions and incomes. These
taxes may be divided into direct and
indirect taxes.
Direct taxes
Direct tax is money levied directly on
the tax payer’s income. The tax payer
bears all the responsibility of the
direct tax. Direct taxes include:
(i) Income tax
This is tax levied on the incomes
of individuals. It is especially
levied on monthly salaries,
royalties paid to authors, leave
pay, bonus, gratuity, wages and
other allowances. The employer
deducts tax depending on the
amount of income a person earns
and remits the deductions to
Kenya Revenue Authority. The
arrangement is termed as Pay As
You Earn (PAYE). It is taxed on a
progressive scale: the more one
earns, the higher the tax.
(ii) Corporation tax
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This is levied on profits made
by companies such as limited
liability companies, co-operatives
and trusts. Companies within
Kenya pay a corporation tax
of 30% and those that are non-
resident are taxable at the rate of
37.5%.
(iii)
Capital gains tax
This is tax levied on prots or
gains obtained from the sale of
an asset, for example machinery
and land.
Indirect taxes
Apart from direct taxes, the
government also gets revenue from
indirect taxes. Indirect taxes are not
directly implicated on the tax payer.
The tax payer passes the burden to a
second party. These taxes are levied on
goods and services and include:
(i) Customs duties
They are imposed on goods such
as cars, cosmetics and electronic
goods imported into the country.
(ii) Excise duty
It is imposed on goods produced
in Kenya, including farm produce
such as coffee, pyrethrum, cotton
and horticulture.
(iii)
Export duty
It is levied on goods exported from
Kenya. They include tea, coffee,
pyrethrum, horticultural products
and scrap metal.
(iv) Value Added Tax (VAT)
This is tax levied on goods.
The consumer gets the burden
of tax in form of higher prices.
There are also other taxes
levied on services like tourism
industry, hotel business and tour
operations. Goods produced
within the country such as beer,
cigarettes, mineral water, sugar,
soaps and textile products attract
value added tax.
(b) Borrowing by the national
government
Sometimes the national
government may spend more
money than the revenue
acquired. If it intends to
nance a certain project and its
revenue is not enough, it resorts
to borrowing.
Borrowing is done by the
national government from its
residents and local institutions
such as insurance companies
and the National Social Security
Fund. It also borrows money
generated from the sale of
treasury bills and national
government bonds. This
borrowing constitutes a public
debt. Public debts are nancial
obligations related to loans
raised, guaranteed and secured
by the national government.
(c) Loan repayments
The government also gets
revenue from the interests on
loan repayments remitted by
county government.
(d) Charges from provision of
government services
This is another source of revenue
through which the government
gets funds from services
delivered by some of the
government departments. Such
services include the provision
of water, electricity, healthcare,
security and police services.
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(e) Fees
The government generates a
substantial amount of revenue
from the sale of licences to
individuals, companies and
institutions. They pay a fee to
acquire such licences . Licenses
paid for include:
(i) Trade licences: These are
business licences bought for
purposes of seeking legal
authority to run a business.
(ii) Motor vehicle licences: These
include road licences, driving
licences and NTSA licences.
These are renewed annually
by paying a fee.
(iii) Liquor licences: These
are purchased by persons
wishing to run beer, wines
and spirits enterprises.
(iv) Professional licences: These
are bought by people who run
private professional services
such as doctors and lawyers.
(f) Court nes
Court nes are also a signicant
source of government revenue.
For many offences, the law
provides for a prison sentence
or a ne. If a court opts for a ne,
the money is paid is revenue to
the government.
(g) Foreign Aid
The external assistance may come
in form of loans, grants, gifts or
technical assistance. All these
are called foreign aid and can
be given to the government by
differentgovernments or different
international institutions.
Some of these organisations are
the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), the IMF
and the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development
(World Bank). Individual countries
are also a source of revenue.
When aid comes in form of loans,
it has to be repaid with interest.
While grants represent loans that
do not attract interest, donations
on the other hand are not for
repayment.
(h) Prots from parastatals
The government raises revenue
from prots made by parastatals.
The government has been a major
investor in parastatals. It gets
profits from parastatals like
Mumias Sugar Company.
(i) Rents and rates
The government may also rent
out its property like buildings,
land and residential areas to the
public. The rents and rates paid
from these properties form part
of the government revenue.
(j) Money from privatisation
of organisations
The government owns some
organisations and in others, it
has shares. It raises revenue
from the sale of some of its
shares to individual entities
or to the public. Some of the
organisations whose shares have
been sold by the government
include the National Bank of
Kenya, Kenya Commercial Bank,
Kenya Airways and Mumias
Sugar Company.
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The most recent one is the sale
of Safaricom shares to the public
which earned the government
Ksh. 50 billion.
II. County Government
The following are sources of revenue
for county government:
(i) Funding from the national
government: Two months
before the end of the nancial
year, through a division of the
revenue bill, parliament allocate
srevenue raised by the national
government between national
and county government. Some
of the nances for the county
government will come from the
national government.
At least 15% share of the annual
national revenue will be allocated
to the county government.
(ii) A county government gets
revenue from rates and rents
on properties such as land,
buildings, business premises,
bus-taxi terminus and urban
access points.
(iii) A county government may
impose tax on entertainment
facilities and services such as
cinemas and theatres.
(iv) It also imposes taxes on services
such as water provision, sewerage,
garbage collection, approval of
buildings and construction plans,
parking, provision of county
health services, trade and county
public works.
(v) Where possible, the county
government may sell property
such as land and houses.
(vi) In farming regions, a county
government charges cess on cash
crops such as sugarcane, tea and
coffee.
(vii) It also receives donations
or borrows from internal or
external sources. However, such
borrowing must be guaranteed
by the national government
or be approved by the County
Assembly.
(ix) A county government gets
revenue through charging nes
to those who break the laws of
the county.
(x) Where a county government has
invested in a certain enterprise,
prots from such business are
another source of revenue.
Expenditure of public
revenue
I. National Government
There are two main ways in
which the national government
spends its revenue. These are
capital expenditure and recurrent
expenditure.
(i) Capital expenditure
Capital expenditure refers to
money spent on development
projects. It is also referred to as
development expenditure. It
includes money spent on projects
such as the construction of roads,
bridges, health facilities, dams,
educational institutions and
purchase of machinery. Usually,
such projects require huge sums
of money.
Capital expenditure also
includes payment and servicing
of loans borrowed locally and
from external sources.
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Fig.8.1: Road construction is one of the projects
where the government spends its revenue.
(ii) Recurrent expenditure
Recurrent expenditure refers to
money the government spends
on a regular basis throughout
the nancial year. This includes
payment of salaries for public
servants. Salaries are paid every
month, hence the term recurrent.
Other ways in which the
government spends money
regularly includes repair and
maintenance of buildings and
roads, purchase of drugs,
equipment and stationery.
Such expenditure must have
been planned for, presented in
the budget and approved by
Parliament.
(iii) Payment of subscriptions
The government also uses its
revenue to pay subscriptions
to bodies and organisations
to which it is affiliated or is
a member. These include the
United Nations, the African
Union, the Commonwealth, the
East African Community and the
Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa, among others.
(iv) Expenditure on emergency
needs
The government uses its reserve
funds to meet emergency needs,
for example, oods, outbreak of
diseases, famine and resettlement
of displaced persons.
(v) Assistance to other
countries
There have been occasions where
the government has assisted other
countries that have experienced
unexpected natural disasters and
hazards. Parliament provides
for supplementary estimates,
that is, a kind of reserve fund
from which to get money to
nance emergency needs, natural
disasters and hazards.
II. County Government
By legal requirement, each county
government should prepare an annual
expenditure plan. This budget covers
the following:
(i) Capital expenditure
This is the money allocated to various
development projects in the county
government budget within a fiscal
year.
The projects are geared towards
enhancing the quality of the county
populace. These projects include
schools, roads, health facilities,
recreational centres, water supply, sh
ponds and dams. Capital expenditure
projects approved by the County
Assembly.
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(ii) Recurrent expenditure
The county government uses the
money to provide services and
maintain existing facilities. These may
include:
(i) Paying salaries and wages to
county government personnel.
(ii) Repairing and maintaining
county property such as roads,
schools, health facilities and
water services among others.
(iii) The county government also uses
the money to service or clear loans
borrowed.
(iv) County governments may
sponsor students for further
studies or provide bursaries to
needy pupils.
(v) County governments also
contributes funds to organisations
such as those managing games,
sports and cultural activities.
They subscribe funds to inter-
county government programmes,
associations and clubs.
Management of public
nance
I. National Government
The national government revenue is
public money. It does not belong to
an individual, institution or group
of individuals. The money belongs
to the citizens. It is raised and kept
for purposes of financing public
services. It is the responsibility of
every individual entrusted with this
public resource to ensure it is well
kept, well spent, and accounted for in
a transparent manner.
The national government has to
put in place elaborate ways, means
and measures to ensure that there
is no abuse or misuse of government
revenue.
Some of these measures include:
(i) National budget
The Cabinet Secretary in charge
of finance prepares a national
budget. Once parliament
approves the proposals, it
becomes a watchdog of the
expenditure. It ensures that the
budget is followed. The budget
consequently becomes a control
measure for public revenue
sourcing and expenditure.
Parliament approves money
allocated to each department.
Hence parliament controls public
nance.
(ii) Committees
Parliament has the Public Accounts
Committee (PAC) and the Public
Investments Committee (PIC).
The two committees scrutinise
and monitor expenditure of
public nance. On a number of
occasions, the two committees
have promptly alerted Parliament
on detected or reported cases of
corruption, misappropriation or
mismanagement of public funds.
The committees can summon
Cabinet Secretaries and public
servants to account for any
financial malpractices in their
dockets or departments.
PAC receives, scrutinises and
presents reports to Parliament or
to relevant committees. It receives
reports from the Controller of
Budget or Auditor General. PIC
ensures that public finance is
utilised on intended projects and
that the projects are worthy. It also
monitors the implementation of
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the projects to ensure value for
public nance. Public Investment
Committees will ‘blow a whistle’
on any noted malpractices.
(iii) Auditing of public expenditure
Auditing of public expenditure
is done by the Auditor-General.
With the help of ofcers from the
Controller’s ofce, the Auditor
General audits all accounts and
expenditures by the National and
County government, National
Assembly and Senate. The holder
of this ofce has tenure of ofce.
This enables one to report to
Parliament any irregularities
detected without fear or favour.
The Inspectorate Department
of State Corporations audits
accounts for all parastatals. All
the audit reports are debated
in Parliament. The Auditor
General also audits accounts
of Commissions and political
parties funded from public funds.
(iv)Anti-corruption units and
organisations
Parliament has approved the
establishment of the Kenya
Anti-Corruption Commission
(KACC). The Commission has
powers to investigate, follow
and recommend prosecution of
cases of corruption and misuse of
public funds. This is an additional
measure to control public
finance. Other anti-corruption
organisations also monitor the
use of public nance.
(v) Departmental internal audit
units
Parliament requires all government
expenditure to be audited and
audit reports presented to it for
scrutiny and debate. Each Cabinet
Secretary has an internal audit unit
to monitor nancial management.
This also is a control measure for
the use of public nance.
(vi)Control on tendering
The government tender system
is intended to ensure that no
irregular financial deals are
carried out by government
ofcers.
(vii) Controller of Budget
The Controller of Budget is
appointed by the President
with the approval of
Parliament.
The Controller oversees
implementation of the budget
of the national government.
He or she authorises the
withdrawal of public funds.
He or she ensures that the
withdrawals are lawful.
He or she submits to Parliament
reports on implementation of
budgets.
II. County Government
County government revenue belongs
to the citizens of the county, and by
extension, the people of Kenya. Every
individual, group or organisation
entrusted with nance for a service
or a project should ensure that the
money is well spent and accounted
for responsibly, bearing in mind the
following areas:
(i) The county government budget
Once the county government
assembly scrutinises, discusses
and approves the county
budget, it becomes the
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reference for project and service
implementation and provision
respectively. Consequently, it
becomes a reference tool for
accountability, monitoring and
management of public nance
at county level. The county
assembly, county executive and
county public service will then
use the budget as a basis to
execute projects and undertake
service operations in the county
for the scal year.
(ii) County government finance
management committees
Each county is expected to ensure
it has accounts committees,
which ensures that public
funds are well utilised. County
governments will constitute
internal audit mechanisms
to ensure transparency and
accountability of public nance.
(iii) Kenya Anti-Corruption
Commission
The Kenya Anti-Corruption
Commission (KACC) is expected
to scale down structures and
operations to monitor nancial
procedures and operations at
county government level. This
will promote accountable public
nance management procedures
and operations.
(iv) Procurement procedures
Each county government
procurement systems and
mechanisms that ensure efcient
and effective management
strategies of public finance at
county government level. With
proper procurement systems in
place; the county government
contracts for goods and services
in a fair, equitable, transparent,
competitive and cost effective
manner.
(v) Controller of budget and Auditor
General
To guarantee effective
management and control of
public finance at county
government level, the Controller
of budget and Auditor-General
ensure accountable and lawful
implementation of the county
government budget.
Functions of the Commission
on Revenue Allocation (CRA)
As part of the efcient and effective
allocation, management and control of
public nance in Kenya, a Commission
on Revenue Allocation has been
established. It has the following
functions:
(i) It establishes and recommends
criteria for equitable sharing or
allocation of revenue raised by
the national government.
(ii) The CRA ensures appropriate,
fair and equitable sharing of
revenue between national and
county governments and among
county governments.
(iii) It makes regular observations
and recommendations on
matters concerning financing
of county government and the
management of those funds.
(iv) The CRA also denes, identies
and enhances revenue sources
of the national and county
government.
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(v) It ensures and encourages scal or
nancial integrity, responsibility,
transparency and accountability.
(vi) The CRA determines, publishes,
and regularly reviews policy
on matters of revenue sharing.
It advises the Senate, National
Assembly, National Executive,
County Assemblies and County
Executives.
Activities
1. Draw a ow chart showing government expenditure.
2. Visit Parliament during the presentation of the National Budget.
3. Prepare a report on the following:
(a) Sources of public revenue for:
i) National government
ii) County government
(b) Expenditure of public revenue:
i) National government
ii) County government
Exercise
1. Identify the sources of revenue to the national government in Kenya.
2. Explain ways in which the county government would use its revenue.
3. Discuss the measures adopted by the national government to manage
public nance.
4. State the functions of the Commission on Revenue Allocation in Kenya.
9
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This chapter focuses on the various
types of governments that selected
countries in the world have adopted.
While some have adopted a federal
system, others have republican and
parliamentary democracies. A few
countries in the world, however, still
continue to be ruled by monarchs
whose powers have been drastically
reduced by the parliaments of the
respective countries.
In this chapter, we shall examine the
federal system of government in the
United States of America (USA), the
constitutional monarchy in Britain
and India’s republican democracy.
The various features of government
in the selected countries will be
highlighted.
I. The United States of
America
The United States of America (USA)
is today the most powerful nation
in the world. Its origin dates back
to 1776, when the thirteen British
colonies declared their independence
from Britain. A year before, war had
broken out between the colonies and
Great Britain, the American War of
Independence.
After the war, the 13 colonies drafted
a constitution which bound them
together as a united nation.
Initially this was a loose association
of the states. The federal government
then had limited powers. Even in
critical matters such as defence,
finance and trade, the federal
government was at the mercy of
individual states. This arrangement
was not conducive to national unity.
Within a short period of independence
these weaknesses began to show.
Political and economic problems
emerged nearly degenerating into
conicts and chaos. The new nation
had to come up with a better and rm
arrangement that would guarantee
unity. It was against this background
that a new constitution came into
being. The constitution was drawn up
in 1787 by the Continental Congress
which met in Philadelphia.
The constitution came up with a
new and more centralised federal
government. It was adopted on 4th
March, 1789. This constitution aimed
at creating a strong, elected federal
government, a government that was
to be responsive to the will of the
people of the USA.
From the 13 states in 1776, USA is to
date a federation of 50 states which
spread across the American continent.
Each state has its powers, but all the
federal states have entered into an
agreement to work out solutions,
adopt joint policies and make joint
discussions on common problems.
It has been tradition since 1801, that
every president of the United States
of America has the ofcial residence
and principal workplace in the White
House which was built between 1792-
1800.
Unit
9
THE ELECTORAL PROCESS AND
FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENTS IN
OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD
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Disadvantages
1. There can be constant attempts
to secede by states that are not
well endowed with economical
resources.
2. Political leaders must be exible
in order to accommodate the
views of the members of the
federation.
Fig 9.1: The White House; the ofcial residence
of the President of the United States of
America.
The Electoral Process in the
USA
The USA elections are conducted by
specic bodies. These bodies are:
• The Party National
• Convention
• The Electoral College
The Party National Convention
National Convention. It is made up of
delegates and super delegates. Super
delegates are senior civil and public
servants, governors, ex-presidents
and old established persons of the
party. These super delegates greatly
influence the results at the Party
National Convention.
Each party and each state decides on
the method to use to select delegates
to the convention.
Advantages and
disadvantages of a federal
system of government
A federal system of government
has a number of advantages and
disadvantages.
Advantages
1. A federal system of
government enables member
states to enjoy a wider market
making them economically
viable.
2. It encourages harmonious
and peaceful coexistence of
member states. The member
states are different but they
maintain their identity.
3. Existence of a common defence
system enhances protection
for small states.
4. A federal system of government
enables states to benet from
the pool of resources.
5. It enables states to maintain
unity through the use of a
common currency.
6. It protects the interests of
the minority groups in the
federation. This is because
all states are treated equally
despite of their social and
economic status.
7. A federal system of government
encourages member states to
tackle common problems
together. This makes it easy
to tackle serious problems like
terrorism and environmental
problems.
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164
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164
The national convention for the
main political parties, that is, the
Republicans and Democrats attracts
wide media coverage.
In case the convention is faced with
a preferred candidate not having
majority delegates, long and tedious
hours of bargaining are common.
Bargaining by party bosses takes
place behind the scenes. The party
will attempt to conceal any negative
happenings. Any mishandling of
issues at the convention can lead to
a party losing the national elections.
The 1968 and 1972 damaging media
coverage of the Democratic Party
National Convention cost Hubert
Humphrey and George McGovern
the American presidency respectively.
The national convention serves two
purposes:
(a) The party candidates are
announced to the public.
(b) Each party announces its
policies. It launches its campaign
manifesto, that is, a declaration of
what it plans to do for the people.
The national convention then
adopts the policies. Such policies
may, however, not be binding
after the elections.
The Electoral College
The Electoral College remains at the
heart of the USA electoral system.
The election of the president of
USA is determined by the Electoral
College. Each state appoints electors
to the Electoral College. The number
of electors is proportional to the
population of the state, the number of
representatives to the Senate and the
House of Representatives (Congress).
Each state has two senators. However,
the House of Representatives has a
number of representatives proportional
to the population of the state. California,
the largest state, with over 30 million
inhabitants, has 52 representatives.
Wyoming, the smallest state has two
senators and only one representative.
California therefore has 54 electors
and Wyoming only three. Members
of the Electoral College of each state
meet in the state capital during a
national or presidential election. The
presidential election is conducted
on a winner-take all basis in each
state. Therefore a candidate who
gets most popular votes in California
gets 54 electoral votes. For example
if in California: Candidate A: has 5
million votes, Candidate B: 4 million
votes and Candidate C: 2 million
votes, Candidate A gets all the 54
Electoral College votes of California. A
candidate who gets a simple majority
of the Electoral College vote is
declared the winner. If no presidential
candidate gains majority vote, the
decision will be referred to the House
of Representatives.
This, in essence means that the
outcome of the presidential elections
in the USA is determined by the
Electoral College and not the popular
vote. It is possible for a presidential
candidate to win the largest number
of the popular vote but lose in the
Electoral College.
This is because:
(a) Each state, irrespective of size has at
least three electors. “winners takes it”
(b) The winner-take-all system means
that a victorious candidate, no
matter how narrow the margin of
victory, is awarded all of a states’
electoral votes.
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164
Voter registration in the USA
Before Americans are allowed to
vote, they must appear on the voters’
register. This is the official list of
eligible voters.
Individual states have put in
place voter-registration laws and
requirements. At the nation’s founding,
voter registration was reserved for
property owners. Thereafter a number
of changes have been made:
(i) Voting was extended to
unpropertied male whites.
(ii) Women could secure a vote.
(iii) Blacks secured the right to vote.
(iv) The poll-tax payment as a
requirement to vote was
outlawed in national elections.
Today voter requirements are as
follows:
(i) One should be an American
citizen.
(ii) One should have attained the age
of 18 years.
(iii) One can be of any race, colour,
sex or status as stipulated in the
constitution.
Although voting is considered crucial
to inuencing national leadership and
protection against undemocratic and
non-performing governments, only a
small percentage of the youth in USA
vote, let alone register as voters.
There are a number of factors that
determine why some people turn out
to vote and not others.
(a) Sex
The USA women vote is
somewhat below that of men.
(b) Race
Sometimes race is a signicant
prediction of voter turnout in
elections. African-Americans still
have a substantially lower voter
turn-out than white Americans.
(c) Feelings of civic duty,
alienation and apathy
Regular voters are characterised
by a sense of a civic duty to
vote. Some voters feel that the
government does not seem to
care for them. They feel alienated
and may not be enthusiastic to
vote. Apathy or a general lack of
interest or concern with politics
leads to low voter turnout.
(d) Age
Young people in the USA tend
to be less enthusiastic about
voting. They tend to be more pre-
occupied with house ownership,
employment and family than
with politics.
(e) Education
Education level is closely
related to voter turnout among
Americans. The more years
one has spent in education, the
higher the chances of voting.
(f) Socio-economic status
Voter turn out is strongly
influenced by socio-economic
status of the individual. Poor
people in the USA tend not to
vote.
There are many elections in the USA,
though the most outstanding is the
presidential national election. Other
elections include; congressional
elections and state elections. The
American electoral process is complex.
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166
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166
It is also lengthy and demanding.
The nature of campaigns in the
American electoral process
Once a candidate has been nominated,
the street campaigning commences.
The American election campaigns
are regulated by the Federal Election
Campaign Act. They, on the whole,
have the following characteristics:
(i) They are costly in terms of
money, material and human
resource. Anyone wishing to get
involved in American elections
should have large sums of
money.
(ii) Once nominated, presidential
candidates can decide to nance
their campaigns from the
Presidential Election Campaign
Fund.
(iii) Party patrons, key party
supporters, the electronic and
print media are key to campaigns
in the USA.
(iv) By law, political parties are
restricted as to the amount of
cash they can offer a candidate
for the campaign. For example,
for the Senate the party can give
up to $17,500, and for the House
of Representatives up to $5000.
Increasingly these restrictions
are being deliberately ignored. It
is not easy to monitor campaign
expenditures.
(v) Foreign donations are illegal
for both Congressional and
Presidential campaigns.
(vi) Candidates are allowed by law
to organise fund-raisings to
generate campaign money.
(vii)
Parties and candidates constitute
Political Action Committees
(PAC) to put campaign
machinery in place, design
posters, select prime-media
time for advertisements, rene
campaign slogans and mobilise
funds. Such funds should,
however, be made public. Pre-
primary election campaign
programmes are financed by
these committees.
(viii)
American citizens engage
themselves in a variety of
campaign activities such as
working for the party, attending
campaign meetings or rallies,
contributing money or displaying
posters, T-shirts and caps.
Apart from holding regular elections
as stipulated by law, Americans have
other aspects of the electoral process
that enrich democracy.
They include:
(a) Initiatives
By initiatives citizens are
allowed to propose changes
within the electoral procedures.
The initiatives also allow for
legislative changes within
the constitution. This can be
achieved through direct initiative
whereby registered voters vote
on the proposal put forward.
It can also be realised through
indirect initiative. This is where
the State Legislature will vote on
the proposals put forward.
(b) Recall-elections
These are also considered an
extension of American democracy.
In America recall elections
enable citizens to remove elected
ofcials from ofce before the
end of their term. To recall such
an ofcial one needs to collect
25% of names of people who
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166
each of the 50 states of the Union.
At the end of the electioneering
period each party nominates its
presidential candidate during
the party’s national delegates
convention.
(iv) The person nominated becomes
the party’s presidential candidate
in the National Presidential
Election.
(v) The running mate for the
presidential candidate is also
announced at the National
Convention and he or she
becomes the Vice-Presidential
candidate.
Qualications for the
presidential nomination
The requirements for an aspiring
president of the USA are spelt out in
Article II of the American constitution
as follows:
(i) The candidate must be at least 35
years old.
(ii) He or she should be a natural born
USA citizen.
(iii) One should have been a resident
in the United States for at least 14
years.
In the history of the USA, the presidents
have been:
(i) Male without exception.
(ii) Protistan with exception of John
F. Kennedy.
(iii) Married with exception of two,
one of whom Grover Cleveland
married in the White House.
(iv) Career public servants such as
army generals, Vice-Presidents,
Senators, USA representatives or
State Governors.
Above all, an American president
should project a strong leadership
image.
voted in the previous election.
Once the 25% of the required
names are collected, a special
election is held. Recall elections
do not apply to Federal Elections.
However, the Congress has
a regulation as to how non-
performing Congress members can
be removed.
(c) Referendums
A referendum is an electoral
procedure that allows voters to
veto a bill passed by local or state
Legislatures. Proposed changes
in the state constitutions can be
subjected to a referendum.
Presidential elections
Presidential elections in the USA
are held after every four years. The
elections are held in the month of
November of the fourth year from the
time the holder of the ofce assumes
presidency. The President is sworn in
on January 20th of the following year.
The P resident of the USA can serve for
a maximum of two, four-year terms.
Nominations for presidential
elections
The process for electing a president
in the USA lasts for nearly a year. The
process is as follows:
(i) Primary elections are held where
candidates from the same party
contest. In the USA there are
two dominant political parties,
the Democratic party and the
Republican Party.
(ii) Candidates who wish to be
nominated as presidential
candidates for their respective
parties declare their intention.
(iii) This is followed by intense
campaigning by the candidates in
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168
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168
Congressional elections
The American Congress comprises
the Senate and the House of
Representatives.
Fig 9.2a: President Barrack Obama; The
Democractic Party Presidential candidate
2008. He was elected the US president.
Fig 9.2b: John McCain; The Republican Party
Presidential candidate 2008. He lost the
election to Barrack Obama.
(a) House of Representatives
Qualication for nomination.
For one to qualify to be a member
of the House of Representatives,
one should satisfy the following
conditions:
(i) Shall have attained the age of
25 years.
(ii) Shall have been a citizen of
USA for at least seven years.
(iii) Be a resident of the state in
which one shall be elected.
(b) The Senate
Qualication for nomination.
For one to qualify to be a member
of the senatehe or she should.
(i) Have attained the age of thirty
ve years.
(ii) Been a citizen of the United
States for nine years.
(iii) Be a resident of the state for
which one shall be elected.
Congress elections are held every
two years. Members of the House of
Representatives stand for re-election
after two years. The elections are held
mid-way through the Representatives’
term in ofce. These mid-term elections
can indicate what the electorate think of
the President’s performance.
Senators are elected for a six-year
term. Every two years, one-third of the
Senators are elected and two thirds are
hold overs, that is, they continue with
their tenure. This arrangement makes
the Senate a continuing body, unlike
the House of Representatives, whose
entire membership is elected every
two years.
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169
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168
candidates to the Senate or House of
Representatives. Primary elections
are also used to select delegates
to the presidential nominating
party convention. There are several
primaries in USA namely:
(a) Closed primaries
These are primaries in which
participation is limited to voters
registered or declared at polls as
members of the party. Most states
in USA use this approach.
(b) Open primaries
This is where independents and
voters of either party vote in a
party’s primary election. But
voters are by law prohibited
from voting in two parties during
the primaries. Less than
1
/
5
of
the American states use this
approach.
(c) Blanket primaries
Only Alaska and Washington
use this method. Here a single
ballot listing both Republican
and Democratic candidates is
provided. Each voter can only
cast one vote per ofce.
Louisiana has a variation on the
blanket primaries form. It has
only candidates listed on the
ballot but are not identied by
party.
The open and blanket primaries are
not popular as they allow outsiders
to inuence party nominations. This
weakens party control more than
closed primary elections.
Fig. 9.3: Bill Clinton; secured USA presidency
from 1992-2001.
There have been cases when the
Congress is dominated by members
other than those of the Presidents’
party. For example, in 1996 Bill Clinton,
a D emocrat, secured a general election
victory, yet the Republicans controlled
the C ongress. The government only
worked with Clinton’s bargain with
Congress. The 1998 mid-term elections
saw Clinton’s Democratic Party
win majority seats in the Congress
which led to the resignation of the
Republican House leader, N. Gingrich.
Mid-term election results are
inuenced by:
(a) Local issues affecting individual
states.
(b) Media coverage of problems each
party may be facing.
Selecting candidates for
congressional elections
Primary elections
A primary election is a method of
choosing party candidates for an
election. These nominations are for
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170
171
170
Functions of the USA
Government
There are three arms of the federal
government in the USA namely the:
1. Legislature
2. Executive
3. Judiciary
1. The Legislature
The American Congress is the
legislative arm of the American
federal government. It is a fairly
large and complex organisation.
The Congress has basically three
main functions:
(i) The law making function.
(ii) The representative function.
(iii) The oversight or supervisory
function.
(a) The law making function
The Congress has authority to make
laws necessary for the functioning
of the government. This law making
function is substantially shared with
the Federal President. The Congress in
its law making process creates bills. A
bill is a proposed legislative act. Most
bills are drafted by executive agencies,
but the Congress also drafts some bills.
The Congress has committees which
study the bills, or invite external inputs
by way of testimonies on the proposed
bills.
The rened bills are debated by the
Congress. If the bill is passed by both
Houses of the Congress, it goes to
the President for signature before it
becomes law. If the President refuses to
sign the bill, it is sent back to either the
Senate or the House of Representatives,
that is, the originating chamber with
the President’s reasons. Congress can
override this decision by a
2
/
3
majority
vote. If the President then fails to sign
it in 10 days excluding Sunday, it
automatically becomes law.
(b) The representative function
In the process of making laws the
Congress represents various interests.
Congress gives people a voice. Congress
members represent constituency
interests in national politics. While in
Washington D.C., the Senators and
House of Representatives members
primarily serve the interests of their
states, groups or parties. Congress
members have to balance their
local interests with the national
expectations of the job. Sometimes
they achieve these by delegating
constituent assignments to staff or
selected groups.
(c) The oversight or supervisory
function
The Congress makes laws and budgets
the funds to implement the laws. The
administration of the laws is done by
the executive branch of the federal
government.
However, the Congress has established
committees to supervise and monitor
various federal departments. This
role becomes more aggressively
undertaken when a particular
government agency or department
misperforms contrary to Congress
rules.
Other functions of the
legislature
Other functions of the legislature
include:
d) It can investigate suspected
scandals in departments although
the constitution does not clearly
outline congress investigative
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171
171
170
powers. This is usually done by
convening a committee.
Although the constitution
does not give the Congress
investigative powers, it has in
the past investigated scandals
such as the Watergate scandal.
When a department is suspected,
a committee of Congress may be
convened to hold hearings.
(e) Congress can appoint a
commission of inquiry to
investigate a national problem.
Executive privilege, that is,
the right to withhold condential
information affecting national
security is exempted from such
hearings.
(f) The Congress approves
government revenue and
expenditure, that is, the national
budget. The Congress has
powers to borrow money and
regulate commerce nationally and
internationally.
(g) The Congress checks on the
executive arm of the government.
It provides legislative vetoes to
executive decisions. For example,
the Department of Defence
cannot close a military facility
without Congress’s approval.
Only the Congress has legal
powers to declare war.
Congress also constitutes
tribunals inferior to the Supreme
Court.
Specic functions of the
House of Representatives
The House of Representatives
performs the following functions:
(i) Brings impeachment charges
against an ofcial.
(ii) Makes taxation and nancial
policies.
(iii) Draws up articles of removal of
the President.
(iv) Together with Senate, the House
of Representatives monitors and if
necessary probes, the conduct of the
federal President, Vice-President,
Secretary of State (ministers) and
public servants.
2. The Executive
The Executive arm of the American
government comprises:
(a) The President
(b) The Vice-President
(c) The Cabinet
(d) The Civil and Public Service
(a) The President
Functions of the President
Fig 9.4: Barrack Obama; the 44
th
President of USA.
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172
173
172
The president performs legislative,
executive, judicial and foreign affairs
related functions. The USA president
is Head of State as well as Head of
Government.
Legislative functions
(i) The President formulates public
policy.
(ii) The President can veto or override
bills passed by the Congress.
(iii) The President can propose
legislation.
(iv) As head of the party in power,
the P resident influences public
opinion and thereby guides the
course of the Congress.
Executive functions
The Executive ofce of the president
consists of the White House which
has a team of the President’s closest
advisors. The following are the
executive functions:
(i) It has the ofce of management
and budget which formulates and
administers the federal budget.
(ii) It houses the National Security
Council which assists the
President on foreign and military
affairs.
(iii) The Council of Economic
Advisors advises the President
on national economy.
(iv) The President appoints the
cabinet, judges, and senior public
ofcials subject to the Senate’s
approval. The President appoints
directors and deputies of federal
agencies and commissions.
(v) The P resident issues rules,
regulations, and instructions
called executive orders. These have
a binding force of law.
(vi) As a Commander-in-Chief of the
Armed Forces, the President can
declare war without reference to
the Congress.
(vii) In times of war, national disaster
or emergency, the Congress may
grant the President of the USA
authority to manage the national
economy and the security of the
people of the United States of
America.
Judicial functions
(i) The President nominates federal
judges and members of the
Supreme Court subject to the
approval of the Senate.
(ii) The President can grant a full or
conditional pardon to any person
convicted of breaking the law.
This pardon excludes cases of
impeachment.
Functions related to foreign
affairs
(i) The US President is the chief
spokesperson for the state both at
home and abroad. Therefore the
President is responsible for the
relations of the USA with foreign
nations.
(ii) The President appoints
ambassadors subject to Senate
approval.
(iii) The President receives
ambassadors and other public
ofcials.
(iv) Through the Department of
Defence, the P resident is
responsible for the protection of
American citizens and of foreign
nationals in the USA.
(v) The President may negotiate
‘executive’ agreements with
foreign powers that are not subject
to Senate conrmation.
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173
173
172
Above all, the President’s conduct of
public affairs is checked and controlled
by the Constitution, Congress and the
Supreme Court.
(b) The Vice-President (VP)
The Vice-President works in the White
House and is the president’s principal
deputy. However, a Vice President
may not necessarily be a member of
the President’s inner circle of advisors.
The Vice-President has therefore no
policy authority.
The Presidents of the USA have
assigned among others the following
duties to the ofce of the Vice-P resident:
(i) Being a link between the
Presidency and the Congress.
(ii) Giving advice on security matters.
(iii) Reviewing Federal Regulations
affecting business productivity.
(iv) Designing environment policies.
(v) Streamlining the working of
government departments.
(c) The Cabinet
The Federal C abinet is made up
of fourteen Executive Heads of
Department. They are appointed
by the President subject to Senate
conrmation. They are referred to as
Secretaries of State.
Functions of the Cabinet
(i) It is mainly an advisory body. The
cabinet is made up of experts in the
various elds such as agriculture,
business and education.
(ii) Collectively the cabinet generates
public policy. It is a decision
making body.
(iii) The cabinet carries out the
President’s functions.
(d) The Civic and Public
Service
The USA federal government consists
of civic and public servants. The
government operates as a bureaucracy.
This is where people in authority are
organised and work according to
structured levels of authority. These
include:
(i) The President’s assistants
These serve the President more
directly and personally. They are
the President’s closest advisors.
Some are press agents, legal or
legislative aides.
(ii) The policy experts
The policy experts provide expert,
researched and specialised advice
to the government. They have
recognised knowledge in areas
such as economy, education, law,
science defence and security.
(iii) Directors
The President also appoints
directors and top deputies of
federal agencies, commissions
and heads of regulatory agencies.
A number of career civil and
public servants do not change
with the change of presidency.
The federal agencies include
the Central Intelligence Agency
(C.I.A) and the National
Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). The
regulatory agencies are created
by the Congress. They have legal
authority to make continuous
regulations and rules to guide
their functions. The presidential
commissions are established to
provide recommendations to the
President in particular areas of
responsibility.
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174
175
174
(iv)The federation civil service
The federal government has
about 3 million civil servants.
They are hired on the basis
of professional training,
qualication and experience. For
one to be employed, one has to
pass a performance competition
test. Most civil servants have
security of tenure. They cannot
therefore be dismissed on
political grounds.
Each USA state has its own regional
or state government which is headed
by a governor. Governors are allowed
to serve for four year terms. In every
state there is the executive, the
legislature and the judiciary. The
state governments are concerned
with issues affecting the area. Such
issues include education, energy, and
welfare.
The federal government handles:
(i) Issuing of national currency.
(ii) National taxation.
(iii) National defence and security.
(iv) International commerce.
(v) Conduct of foreign affairs.
3. The federal judicial system
The USA judicial system comprises
the Supreme Court, courts of appeal,
and district courts. The constitution
establishes the Supreme Court of the
United States. It grants the Congress
the authority to establish lower federal
courts. The Congress also determines
the number of Justices on the Supreme
Court. Since 1869 the number has held
at nine. Each state has its own court
system.
The Supreme Court
The Chief Justice presides over the
Supreme Court. The Chief Justice has
associate justices working with him
or her in the Supreme Court. They
are all appointed by the P resident
and approved by the Senate. There
are no restrictions in terms of age for
this office, let alone legal training.
Tradition, however, dictates the
need for educational or professional
background in law. The Supreme
Court has original as well as appellate
powers. Original jurisdiction is
authority from the first court to
hear a case. Appellate jurisdiction
is authority to review cases that
have already been heard in lower
courts. Such cases are appealed to the
Supreme Court by the losing party.
Such courts are called Appeal Courts
or Appellate Courts.
Functions of the S upreme C ourt
(i) Supreme Courts original
jurisdiction includes legal
disputes involving diplomats
and two or more states. Such
disputes are rare. Most of its
work is of appellate nature.
(ii) The appellate jurisdiction also
includes cases arising out of
the constitution, federal law,
regulations and treaties. It thus
interprets the law.
(iii) It hears appeals connected with
sea or ships.
(iv) It handles legal controversies that
cross state or national boundaries.
Such cases would involve parties
of different states, citizens of
different states or when one party
is the US government or a foreign
government.
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175
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174
The Appellate Courts including
the Supreme Court do not
retry cases. They only determine
whether a trial court acted
according to the relevant law.
Federal Courts of Appeal
The Federal Courts of Appeal hears
cases of appeal from the district
courts. They make up the second
level of the federal courts. No new
evidence is submitted to the C ourt
of Appeal. Appellate judges only act
as supervisors in the legal system,
reviewing court decisions from lower
courts. They also correct mistakes
made by these courts.
The US has twelve general appeals
courts, each of which serves an area
consisting of between 3 and 9 states.
The District of Columbia has its own
Court of Appeal. There is also the USA
court of Appeal for the Federal Circuit.
Its functions are to:
(a) Hear appeals of decisions in
cases involving patents and
international trade.
(b) Provide hope for reversal of
decisions of the lower courts.
Federal District Courts
These are the lowest courts. There are
more than 90 Federal District Courts
altogether. The judges of the District
Courts are appointed by the President
with the consent of the Senate. The
District Courts are trial courts where
parties present their evidence and
argue their sides. Thereafter, a decision
is made in favour of one party or the
other.
The cases handled by the District
Courts include:
(i) Cases involving private law,
that is, the relationship between
individuals and businesses.
(ii) Cases involving public law,
that is, the relationship between
individuals and government and
the rights and obligations of each.
For example, crime, political rights
and government obligations under
the constitution. These lower
courts rely on the precedents of
the appellate courts.
State Courts
Apart from the federal courts each
state has its own courts. State Courts
have lower and appellate courts. State
Courts include:
(i) Family Courts which settle family
disputes such as divorce and
child custody.
(ii) Probate Courts which deal with
disposition of estates of deceased
persons.
(iii) Trial courts such as magistrate
courts and justice of peace courts
handle a variety of minor offences.
These include traffic offences
and crime cases ranging from
shoplifting to murder. Cases from
state courts are never referred to
the federal courts except when
the matter touches on the federal
aspect of the law. In such a case the
federal ruling cannot be reversed
by a state court.
Special Federal Courts
These special federal courts include:
(i) The Claims Courts which hear
cases where the USA government
is sued for damages.
(ii) The US Court of I nternational
Trade which handles cases
involving appeals of the US
customs ofce rulings.
(iii) The US C ourt of Military Appeals,
which hears appeals of military
court martials.
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(iv) Some federal agencies also have
adjudicate powers. Decisions
made by such agencies can be
appealed against in the Federal
Court System.
II. Britain
Britain comprises England, Wales,
Scotland and Northern Ireland. It has
evolved a parliamentary system of
government over many years. In the
5th Century A.D the Angles, Saxons
and Jutes invaded Britain.
They introduced a parliamentary form
of government. By the 12th Century,
the people of Britain had spelt out that
the Kings or Queens could only rule
according to the laws of the land. It
was also agreed that such laws should
be made by the representatives of
the people. This is what came to be
known as a Constitutional Monarchy.
Britain is a parliamentary democracy.
The principle of representation by
elected members is central.
In the discussion that follows, there
is a highlight of the British electoral
process as well as an analysis
of the various arms of the British
government.
The Electoral P rocess in Britain
Unlike in the United States and a great
majority of democratic states outside
the Commonwealth, there is no xed
date for British parliamentary elections.
However, there is a limit on the length
of life of the House of Commons.
(i) In 1694 it was set at 3 years.
(ii) It was increased to 7 years in 1715.
(iii) Under the parliament Act of 1911
the present limit of 5 years was
adopted.
In present times most British
parliaments have lasted for a period of
between three to four and a half years.
The date of a general election is
decided upon by the Prime Minister.
A general election can also be held if
the House of Commons passes a vote
of no condence in the government.
If a vote of no condence is passed
against the government, the Prime
Minister is required to request the
Monarch to dissolve parliament.
There are specic factors that inuence
the choice of an election date. These
are as follows;
(i) The economic situation, that is,
availability of funds.
(ii) The state of the government’s
legislative programme in the
House of Commons.
(iii) The desire to increase government
support in parliament.
Polling day is set at 17 days
after date of the dissolution of
parliament. A general election,
however, cannot be held on
a Saturday, Sunday or Bank
holidays.
General Elections
After the dissolution of parliament,
the Lord Chancellor issues ‘writs’ or
legal notices for holding elections.
The writs are sent to the Returning
Officers in each Parliamentary
Constituency. There are about 650
Constituencies in Britain.
The Returning Officer immediately
publishes notices showing the election
time table.
Voter registration
On 28th November each year a
provisional register is published by
the Registration Ofcer for inspection.
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Claims and objections may be made
on or before 16th December on a form
to be obtained from the Registration
Ofcer.
The final voter register with all
successful claims and objections is
printed shortly before 15th February.
The register is divided into polling
districts giving each voter minimum
distance practicable to travel to cast
his or her vote.
Absent voters may vote by proxy or by
post. In such a case they should make
arrangements in advance.
The following categories of people
qualify to vote in British elections:
(i) British citizens over the age of 18
years.
(ii) Citizens from Commonwealth
countries who have resided in
Britain for periods stipulated by law.
(iii) Citizens of the Republic of Ireland
who have been residents for
periods stipulated by law.
The following are people not legible
to vote:
(i) Persons of unsound mind.
(ii) Convicts
(iii) Persons convicted of corrupt or
illegal practices in connection
with elections are ineligible to
vote for ve years from the date
of conviction.
(iv) Adults whose names do not appear
on the register of voters cannot
vote. For one to be included in
the voter’s register, one has to
be a resident of the constituency
on the qualifying date, 10th
October in England, Wales and
Scotland. In Northern Ireland the
qualifying date is 15th September.
It is necessary for one to have been
a resident at the same address for
three months before the qualifying
date.
(v) Peers or members of the Upper
House cannot vote for members
of the House of Commons.
Nomination of parliamentary
candidates
Once the Prime Minister has announced
a date for the general elections,
constituencies convene meetings to put
local party election machines in place.
Each party nominates its candidates.
A candidate who wishes to contest
for a parliamentary seat must full
the following conditions:
(i) Must be a British Citizen or
Commonwealth subject or a
citizen of the Republic of Ireland.
(ii) Should be of a minimum age of 21
years.
(iii) Must be nominated by a political
party or be an independent
candidate.
Persons in the following categories
are disqualified from vying for
parliamentary seats:
(i) English or Scottish Peers. These
are nobles and have the right to
sit in the House of Lords.
(ii) Clergy of the Church of England
or the Church of Ireland Ministers
of the Church of Scotland, and
Roman Catholic Priests.
(iii) Aliens who are not citizens of
Britain.
(iv) Persons certified by medical
practitioner to be mentally
incapacitated or of unsound
mind.
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(v) Undischarged bankrupts.
(vi) Convicted persons.
(vii) Persons who have committed
illegal practices during elections
or those who are corrupt.
(viii)
Members of the armed forces who
are not discharged.
In the event of a disqualied person
being elected, the defeated opponent
is free to apply to the High Court to
have the election declared void.
There are a number of factors that
determine the nomination of a
candidate for a parliamentary seat.
These include:
(i) Conformity and ability to
articulate party policies.
(ii) The personality of a candidate.
Candidates with pleasing
personalities tend to be
nominated by party delegates.
(iii) Knowledge and experience
to perform the conceived
responsibilities of an MP.
(iv) Articulation of local constituency
interests. For example, a candidate
seeking nomination in an
agricultural constituency should
have both knowledge and interest
in agriculture.
(v) Age plays an important part
in deciding nominees in a
Constituency where a party is not
popular. In such a Constituency
a party that is not popular may
prefer a young, energetic and
enthusiastic candidate.
(vi) Party prejudice also influences
nominations. For example, the
Conservative Party tends to be
less enthusiastic about women
candidates. This prejudice is
however, diminishing. Blacks
and other ethnic minorities
are also discriminated against
when it comes to nomination of
candidates.
(vii)
The profession of a candidate
greatly inuences nominations.
Lawyers and other legal
practitioners tend to be advantaged.
Other professions that are well
represented include; university
dons, teachers, business persons,
farmers, journalists and miners.
The election agent and the respective
campaign team perform varied tasks.
These include:
(i) Familiarising the candidate’s
name to the prospective voters.
(ii) Explaining the candidate’s party
policies.
(iii) Identifying party supporters
within the constituency.
(iv) Building up and refining
strategies to ensure that many
people turn up to vote for their
candidates.
Once a candidate has been nominated,
the name is adopted at a public party
meeting. The candidate completes
a nomination form which must be
signed by a proposer, seconder and
eight other people all of whom must
be electors in that constituency. The
nomination form must be delivered
in person to the Returning Officer
by the candidate, the proposer or
the seconder between the hours of
10.00 a.m and 4.00 p.m. on the day of
nomination.
Provided a nomination paper has been
lled in and delivered as expected, it is
deemed valid by the Returning Ofcer.
The representatives of the other
candidates may inspect nomination
papers of their rivals. If by the time
nominations are closed only one valid
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nomination has been received, the
Returning Ofcer declares the person
elected and publishes a notice to that
effect. If more than one nomination
has been received, the electoral process
moves on to the next stage.
Campaigns
The campaign duration is two weeks
after nomination. During this time
the Returning Ofcer issues ofcial
poll cards to each elector. The card
will contain information regarding
the elector’s number, how, where and
when to vote. The Returning Ofcer
will also send out by post ballot
papers to registered postal votes. This
exercise is witnessed by the candidate
or his or her agent. An agent would
have been chosen by a nominated
candidate.
The agent’s name is submitted to the
Returning Officer in writing. Most
agents also constitute campaign
committees. Such committees consist
of a handful of key supporters who
organise campaigns for the candidates.
Campaigns focus on pre-electoral
propaganda, colourful posters, and
advertisements in a large number of
national and daily newspapers. Radio
and television broadcasts have recently
joined the campaign. Private business
interests allied to particular parties
sometimes spend large amounts of
nancial and material resources on
campaigns. Party policy handbooks
and manifestos are taken to the
constituencies for speakers to refer to
when articulating party policies and
pledges. The party headquarters also
disburses funds to the constituencies
to ensure that each candidate has
some ready cash with which to nance
their campaign.
Polling
(i) Polling stations are supposed to
open at 7.00 a.m.
(ii) The Presiding Ofcer is in charge
of each polling station and is
assisted by a number of polling
clerks.
(iii) The Presiding Ofcer is provided
with the Election Register, a list
of proxy and postal orders, an
adequate supply of materials to
be used for the polling exercise
like ballot boxes.
(iv) No unauthorised person is
admitted to a polling station.
(v) Immediately before 7.00 a.m., the
Presiding Ofcer must show the
empty ballot box(es) to whoever
is in the polling station and then
lock it, and place a seal on the
lock.
(vi) When a voter arrives, the voter
will give his or her full name and
address to the polling clerk.
(vii)
The voter takes the ballot
paper into one of the voting
compartments and marks an X
against the candidate of his or
her choice.
(viii)
The voter then folds the ballot
paper and in the full view of
the Presiding Ofcer, drops it in
the ballot box. If a voter spoils
the ballot paper, he or she is
provided with another one, and
the spoiled ballot paper marked
“cancelled”.
(ix) Visually impaired and
incapacitated voters may ask the
Presiding Officer to mark their
ballot papers. They may opt to
bring a friend with them who will
mark the ballot paper on their
behalf.
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(x) Candidates are allowed to visit
polling stations to ascertain that
all is going well.
(xi) The elderly, the sick and women
voters are offered transport to
the poll. Party mobilisers offer
transport to reluctant voters to
ensure they cast their votes.
(xii)
The Presiding Ofcer closes the
polling stations at 10 p.m., seals
the ballot boxes and makes a
ballot paper account. The account
shows the ballot papers issued to
electors, the unused and spoilt
ballot papers. The police under
the direction of the Returning
Ofcer, collects the ballot boxes
and takes them straight to the
counting hall.
(xiii) All persons attending the count,
that is the Returning Ofcer, the
candidates, their spouses, agents
and party supporters should
have signed a declaration of
secrecy. They would thus not
attempt to discover or disclose
how an individual voted.
(xiv) The ballot papers in various
ballot boxes are mixed and sorted
out in piles representing votes
polled for each candidate. They
are counted in bundles of one
hundred.
(xv) In case of doubtful validity of
a ballot paper, the Returning
Ofcer adjudicates them in the
presence of candidates and their
agents.
(xvi) When the Returning Officer
has adjudicated on all doubtful
votes, they are added to their
appropriate pile and the total
votes cast for each candidate
will be recorded by the chief
counting assistant. The
results are then handed to the
Returning Ofcer.
(xvii) The Returning Officer then
declares the new members
elected.
(xviii) In case of ties results, a recount
may be ordered. Several
recounts are also permissible.
If after several recounts there
is an equality of votes between
the leading two candidates, the
Returning Ofcer draws a lot
to decide the winner.
(xix) The Returning Officer then
makes public the results in
writing.
(xx) A candidate who is not satised
with the results can challenge
them in the High Court.
Apart from general elections, a by-
election can be held in Britain. There
are a number of circumstances under
which a seat may be declared vacant
occasioning a by-election. Such
vacancies may be occasioned by:
(i) Death of a sitting member of
parliament.
(ii) Succession or elevation to the
peerage.
(iii) Bankruptcy declared on a member
of parliament.
(iv) Lunacy of a member of parliament.
(v) Expulsion from the House.
(vi) Resignation.
By-elections attract a lot of activity,
with electioneering machinery drawn
from professionals from national
party headquarters. The personality
of a candidate in a by-election is
more important than in a general
election. Governments take by-
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elections seriously because losing too
many seats in a by-election makes the
ruling party vulnerable.
Local Elections
These are elections where
representatives of local authorities
are voted for. Councillors are elected
for a four-year term.
The local authorities include:
(i) District councils.
(ii) London boroughs.
(iii) Metropolitan districts.
(iv) Regional and Island councils.
Voters who qualied to vote in the
parliamentary elections also vote in
the local elections.
The British parliamentary and local
elections are based on the principle
of universal suffrage. One is not
discriminated against on the basis of
race, sex, colour or religion.
Aspiring candidates for local
authorities elections in Britain must
full the following conditions:
(i) Be of 21 years and above.
(ii) Be a resident of the local authority
where one wishes to vie for a seat.
(iii) Be nominated by 10 electors for the
ward one is contesting a seat in.
Functions of Government in
Britain
The British Government organises its
activities and operations around four
basic institutions. These are:
1. The Monarchy
2. The Legislature
3. The Executive
4. The Judiciary
1. The Monarchy
Britain has a Constitutional Monarchy.
The royalty, that is, the King or
Queen rules and derives power from
Parliament. The monarchy operates
on policies approved and assigned
by Parliament. The British unwritten
constitution recognises this role of the
monarchy and they are thus said to
reign but do not rule.
The Queen or King’s ofcial residence
is the Buckingham Palace.
Functions of the monarchy
The monarchy performs the following
functions:
(i) It advises government. The
monarch is the Head of State.
(ii) All legal authority is in theory
derived from the Queen or King.
(iii) It summons, prorogues and
dissolves P arliament in
consultation with the Prime
Minister.
(iv) The monarch gives royal assent
to bills passed by Parliament to
become law.
(v) It is the “fountain of justice”
in which case all the authority
and decisions of the courts are
derived from the crown.
(vi) If confers honours to persons
who have rendered distinguished
service. These include peerages
where persons become Lords or
Fig 9.5a: Buckingham Palace; the official
residence of the Queens/Kings of Britain.
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Knights. They are by honour
referred to as ‘Lady’ or ‘Sir’.
(vii)
Approves all appointments to
important state ofces such as
judges, senior members of the
armed forces and civil service.
(viii)
It gives consent to all cabinet
appointments.
2. The Legislature
The British parliament has two
assemblies:
• The House of Lords
• House of Commons.
(a) The House of Lords
The House of Lords or Upper House
comprises members of the royalty
usually nominated by the Monarch.
One gets to the House of Lords by:
a) Being nominated by the
Monarchy from among his or
her peers who include Dukes,
Barons and Princes.
b) Through inheritance, where
nine out of ten members of the
Lords are hereditary peers.
c) People with distinguished
positions are likely to get to
the House of Lords by virtue
of their positions or office
for example the Judges or
the Bishops of the Anglican
Churches.
They include:
(i) Dukes
(ii) Barons
(iii) Princes
(iv) Lords and leaders of the
Church of England
Functions
The House of Lords performs the
following functions:
(i) It initiates legislation. In this case
the Upper House assists in the law
making process.
(ii) It sits as the nal Court of Appeal.
This is the legislative function of
the House of Lords.
(iii) It examines and renes bills which
pass through Parliament.
(iv) It also checks on the powers of the
Executive. This is to ensure that
the Cabinet and other government
departments are managed well.
(b) The House of Commons
This is also referred to as the
Lower House. It comprises the
following:
(i) Elected majority party members
who also form government.
(ii) Elected minority party members
who also form the opposition.
(iii) The speaker.
Initially it was made up of Knights and
the business class or the bourgeoisie.
Today lawyers and other professionals
constitute the bulk of the members of
this house.
Fig 9.5b: Queen Elizabeth II, the British
Monarch.
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A party that secures a majority in
the House of Commons during the
elections has its leader appointed
by the Crown as the Prime Minister.
The Monarch then invites the Prime
Minister to form the government.
Functions of the House of
Commons
(i) The House of Commons is the
major Legislative arm of the
government. It handles the task
of law making.
(ii) It controls the government
budget. By this, the House of
Commons monitors government
revenue and expenditure.
(iii) It deliberates on nance bills and
votes money for government
ministries.
(iv) The House of Commons also
checks on the functions and
powers of the Executive.
It ensures that the Executive
operates within the law.
(v) It directs government policy and
advises the Prime Minister. No
government organ including
the Monarch can impose taxes
without seeking the guidance
and approval of the House of
Commons.
The British Constitution recognises
the supremacy of Parliament. By
this, parliament has the right to make
or any law. No person or body is
recognised by the law of England as
having the right to override or set
aside the Legislation of Parliament.
Parliament has even power to prolong
its life beyond the normal period
of ve years. In practice, however,
parliament does not misuse its
supremacy. Parliamentary supremacy
is based on the democratic principle
that what touches all should be
approved by all.
3. The Executive
The Executive arm of the British
Government comprises:
(a) The Prime Minister
(b) The Cabinet
(c) The Civil Service
Functions of the Prime Minister
(PM)
The Prime Minister performs the
following functions:
(i) The Prime Minister is the executive
head of government. The Prime
Minister chairs the Cabinet.
Fig.9.6: David Cameron; Prime Minister of
Britain who took over from Gordon Brown.
(ii) The Prime Minister is the chief
advisor of the Monarch and
therefore keeps the King or Queen
informed of the general operations
of the government.
(iii) He or she is the leader of the party
that wins a majority in the House
of Commons and is thus the chief
government spokesperson in the
House of Commons.
(iv) The Prime Minister recommends
the appointment to senior ofces
in the Church of England and the
judiciary.
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(v) The Prime Minister co-ordinates
and supervises the implementation
of government policies.
(vi) The Prime Minister is also the
government spokesperson in
international fora such as the United
Nations, the Commonwealth and
the European Union.
The Cabinet
The Prime Minister appoints the
Cabinet from among members of
the House of Commons. This is
done with advice from the Monarch.
These appointments are subject to the
approval of the House of Commons.
Functions
(i) Each government department is
headed by a Minister. Under the
Minister is a team of staff that
constitutes the civil service.
(ii) Ministers initiate policies that
guide the operations in the various
departments of the Ministry.
(iii) Ministers have the nal say in the
decisions made in their ministry.
They therefore determine the
policy to present to P arliament for
consideration.
(iv) Each Minister continuously
co-ordinates and supervises the
various sections of government
departments.
(v) Ministers supervise policy
implementation in the ministries.
The Civil Service
According to the British law, civil
servants are servants of the crown.
They work courtesy of the Monarch.
Each Ministry has a team of civil
servants working directly under the
Minister. The most senior civil servant
in the ministry is the Permanent
Secretary.
The minister is held responsible for
whatever happens in the ministry.
The Minister is expected to protect a
civil servant who has implemented
agreed policy. Such a civil servant
must be defended in and outside
Parliament. When a civil servant
makes a mistake, the minister accepts
and takes responsibility. This however,
does not affect the minister’s power to
control and discipline the staff within
the ministry.
A civil servant is expected to be non-
partisan. By this a civil servant is
supposed to serve the government of
the day without fear of favour.
Unlike the Ministers, the civil service
staff does not change with the
change of government. Continuity is
considered central to administrative
efciency.
Recruitment in the civil service is
based on merit. The P ublic Service
C ommission recruits, tests, hires,
promotes and disciplines civil
servants.
The civil service staff includes:
(i) Administrative staff: These
advise the Minister on policy and
deal with problems that arise in
carrying out policy.
(ii) Executive class: This is mainly
concerned with the day to day
conduct of government business.
They do so within the framework
of existing policy. Some carry
out specialised functions such as
auditing and statistics.
Functions
The civil servants perform a variety of
functions. However, they can be put
under four main categories, namely:
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(a) Implementation of ministerial
policies agreed by Parliament.
(b) Assist in the formulation of
policies and generation of policy
proposals.
(c) Manage government
administrative machinery.
(d) Carry out normal duties that
public administration demands.
In principle, the civil servants are
non-partisan; however, the law does
not forbid them from expressing their
private political opinions on national
and local issues. Civil servants are
also free to exercise their voting rights.
4. The Judiciary
The Judiciary is a signicant arm of the
British Government. It is based on the
supremacy or rule of law. The powers
of the Crown and the Executive are
derived from and limited by:
(a) Legislation enacted by
Parliament.
(b) Judicial decisions taken by
courts.
There is therefore the separation of
powers between the various arms of the
government and absence of arbitrary
authority. This principle also enhances
democratic practices.
The rule of law’ means that, no one
is above the law and that all persons
are equal before it. With this principle
in place, it is clear that no one can be
convicted of a crime except against the
established laws of the land. Equally,
an accused person is assumed innocent
until proved guilty by an established
court, at which one may call witnesses
in self-defence.
To safeguard the rule of law, the British
judiciary has an independent court
system. Members of the judiciary are
independent of the executive and the
legislature. Members of the judiciary
are appointed by the government.
They enjoy tenure of office. This
guarantees the independence of this
arm of government. A judge cannot
be criticised in Parliament except on a
substantive motion which implies clear
evidence of misconduct. The salaries of
Judges of the High Court and the Court
of Appeal are not voted for annually by
Parliament. They are drawn directly
from the consolidated fund.
The structure of the British
court system
The British Judiciary has an elaborate
court system. There are civil and
criminal courts.
(i) The Civil Courts
There are four main courts that have
jurisdiction over civil matters. These
include the County Courts, the High
Court of Justice, the Court of Appeal
and the House of Lords.
(a) The County Courts
These are exclusively civil courts
which deal with the bulk of civil
complaints. They deal with civil
litigation which includes hire
purchase agreements and rent
restrictions.
(b) The High Court of Justice
These hear more serious civil
matters. They include actions
involving settlements, trusts,
administration of the estates of
deceased persons, company,
bankruptcy matters and some
tax cases. The High Courts also
handles divorce cases, proof of
wills and shipping cases. The High
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Court has original jurisdiction. It
can also hear appeals from the
lower courts and tribunals.
(c) The Court of Appeal
This court hears appeals from
the County Courts and the High
Court. It is headed by a judge
called the “Master of the Rolls”
who is assisted by Lord Justices
of Appeal.
(d) The House of Lords
From the Court of Appeal a
further appeal may be made
to the Supreme Court or the
House of Lords. Such appeals are
usually heard by ve of the nine
Lords of Appeal. These are paid
professional judges in the House
of Lords.
(ii) Criminal Courts
(a) The Magistrates’ Courts
These are courts where persons
accused of all kinds of minor
offences are tried. They are also
used in preliminary inquiries
to determine whether or not
an accused person should be
committed for trial in the High
Court. They handle minor
criminal offences such as petty
thefts and assaults among others.
The Magistrates’ Courts have
original jurisdiction.
(b) Courts of Quarter Sessions
Under the criminal act, these
courts hold as many sessions
as is deemed necessary. They
are spread out in Britain. They
handle all criminal cases except
those carrying the death sentence
or life imprisonment. They are
presided over by a legal qualied
chair known as the ‘Recorder’ in
a borough or ‘chairperson’ in case
of a county.
(c) Courts of Assize
These are branches of the High
Court held in country towns
or big cities three times a year.
Assize judges try the most serious
criminal offences committed in
the country. They may also hear
civil cases. However, most of
their time is devoted to criminal
work.
(d) The Courts of Criminal
Appeal
The courts appeals from persons
convicted of crime at Assize
Courts, and the Courts of Quarter
Sessions. They can also hear a
retrial where a convicted person
has new evidence. A further appeal
from the court of Criminal Appeal
may be referred to the House of
Lords. This only happens if the
Courts certify that a point of law
of general public importance is
involved.
Tribunals
These are special courts usually
appointed by the relevant minister to
settle disputes between a citizen and
a respective department. Tribunals
handle cases of diverse concerns that
need not be taken to Courts of Law.
These include:
(a) National insurance
(b) Industrial injuries
(c) Military service
(d) Rents
(e) Pensions
(f) Agriculture
(g) Independent schools
(h) Road trafc
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Some of these cases require specialised
knowledge because those sitting on
the tribunal are expected to make
valuations, assess and determine
compensation, determine rents, fares
and rates.
When appointing a chair, for example,
a member with legal knowledge, the
head of the British Judiciary and the Lord
Chancellor is involved.
Tribunals therefore are an attempt
to broaden the rule of law and
administration of justice.
III. India
The independence of India was
inaugurated at the midnight of 14
th
August 1947. Jawaharlal Nehru,
became India’s rst Prime Minister.
In November 1949, a new constitution
making India an Independent Republic
was enacted. India was constituted as
a sovereign democratic republic. It is
the world’s largest democracy.
The Indian Constitution draws
heavily from the British Parliamentary
Constitution.
India had been under British inuence
and rule from about 1757. India
adopted three main aspects of the
United States of America Constitution.
These were:
(i) The separation of powers
between the branches of the
government.
(ii) The establishment of the
Supreme Court.
(iii) The federal structure with
specific functions of the
central government and state
governments.
The Electoral Process in India
India is a constitutional democracy
with a parliamentary system of
government. At the heart of the system
is a commitment to hold regular, free
and fair elections. These elections
determine the composition of the
government and the membership of
the two houses of Parliament named
Lok Sabha (lower house) also called
State Legislative Assembly and Rajya
Sabha (upper house), also called the
Union Territory Legislative Assembly.
Elections in India are events
involving political mobilisation and
organisational complexity on an
amazing scale.
Constituencies and
reservations of seats
The country has been divided into 543
parliamentary constituencies, each of
which one MP to the Lok Sabha. The
size and space of the parliamentary
constituencies are determined by an
independent Delimitation Commission,.
The commission which aims to create
constituencies which have roughly the
same population, subject to geographical
consideration and the boundaries of the
states and administrative areas.
Delimitation is the redrawing of the
boundaries of parliamentary or
assembly constituencies to make
sure that there are, as near as practical,
the same number of people in each
constituency. In India boundaries are
meant to be examined after the ten-
yearly census. They to reect changes
in population, for which Parliament
by law establishes an independent
delimitation commission. It is made
up of the Chief Election Commissioner
and two judges or ex-judges from
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the Supreme Court or High Court.
However, under the constitutional
amendment of 1976, delimitation
was suspended until after the census
of 2001, ostensibly so that states’
family-planning programmes would
not affect their political representation
in the Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabhas.
This has led to wide discrepancies in
the size of constituencies, with the
largest having over 2,500,000 electors,
and the smallest less than 50,000.
The constitution puts a limit of
550 elected members on the size
of the Lok Sabha apart from two
members who can be nominated
by the President to represent the
Anglo-Indian community. There
are also provisions to ensure the
representation of scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes, with reserved
constituencies, where only candidates
from these communities can stand for
election.
For scheduled castes, 79 seats are
reserved in Lok Sabha, for scheduled
tribes 41 seats are reserved.
India remains by far the largest
democracy in the world, with over 600
million voters. India’s parliamentary
government and electoral system, is
a legacy of British colonialism, which
ended in 1947. The British introduced
self-government to India in stages,
but it was not until the end of colonial
rule and the adoption of the Indian
Constitution in 1950 by a Constituent
Assembly that universal suffrage was
achieved.
The Indian Constitution reserves 22
percent of all seats for historically
disadvantaged groups known as
scheduled castes (79 reserved seats)
and scheduled tribes (41 reserved
seats). In these constituencies, only
members of the scheduled castes or
tribes may contest the polls, although
all electors have voting rights. This
has ensured that their parliamentary
representation is in line with their
proportion of the population. A
constitutional amendment, which
seeks to reserve 33 percent of seats for
women representatives, is currently
being considered.
Independent Election Commission
An independent election commission
has been established under the
constitution in order to carry out and
regulate the holding of elections in
India.
The election commission was
established in accordance with
the constitution on 25
th
January
1950. Originally a chief election
commissioner ran the commission,
but rst in 1989 and later in 1993, two
additional election commissioners
were appointed.
The election commission is responsible
for the conduct of the elections to
Parliament and state legislatures and
to the ofces of the President and Vice-
President.
The election commission performs the
following functions:
(i) Prepares, maintains and
periodically updates, the electoral
roll, which shows who is entitled
to vote.
(ii) Supervises the nomination of
candidates.
(iii) Registers political parties.
(iv) Monitors the election campaign
including candidates’ funding.
(v) It also facilitates the coverage of
the election process by the media.
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(vi) Organises for the polling booths
where voting takes place.
(vii) Supervises the counting of votes
and the declaration of results.
All this is done to ensure that
elections can take place in an
orderly and fair manner.
At present, there are two election
commissioners appointed by the
P resident. The Chief Election
Commissioner can be removed
from office only by parliamentary
impeachment.
The commission decides most matters
by consensus but in case of any
dissension, the majority view prevails.
The commission has its headquarters
in New Delhi, with a secretariat of
some 300 staff members. At the
state level a chief electoral officer
with a core staff of varying numbers,
is available on a full time basis.
At the district and constituency
level, officers and staff of the civil
administration double up as election
ofcials. During the election exercise,
a vast number of additional staff
are temporarily recruited for about
two weeks. They function mainly as
polling and counting ofcials.
The election commission appoints a
large number of observers to ensure
that the campaign is conducted fairly,
and that people are free to vote as they
choose. Observers keep a check on the
amount of money that each candidate
and party spends during elections.
The election commission sets up
a definite election programme to
include:
(i) Date of issue of notication by the
President.
(ii) Last date of filing nomination
forms by various political parties.
(iii) Date of scrutiny of nominations.
(iv) Last date of withdrawal of
candidates.
(v) Date of poll.
(vi) Date before which election shall
be completed.
(vii) Hours of the poll. After the poll
counting is done immediately
using electronic voting machines
(EVM’s).
Dissolution of parliament and
scheduling of elections
Elections for the Lok Sabha and
every State Legislative Assembly
have to take place every ve years,
unless called earlier. The President
can dissolve the Lok Sabha and call
a general election before ve years
are over if advised by the P rime
Minister as was the case in 1971 and
1997. It can also be dissolved if the
government can no longer command
the condence of the Lok Sabha and
if there is no alternative government
available to take over as was the case
in 1991.
Governments have found it increasingly
difcult to stay in power for the full
term of a Lok Sabha in recent times and
so elections have often been held before
the ve-year limit has been reached.
A constitutional amendment passed
in 1975, as part of the government
declared emergency, postponed the
elections due to be held in 1976. This
amendment was later rescinded and
regular elections resumed in 1977.
Holding of regular elections can only
be stopped by means of a constitutional
amendment and in consultation
with the election commission. It
is recognised that interruptions of
regular elections are acceptable only
in extraordinary circumstances.
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When the five-year limit is up, or
the legislature has been dissolved
and new elections have been called,
the election commission puts into
effect the machinery for holding an
election. The constitution states that
there can only be a minimum of 6
months between the last session of the
dissolved Lok Sabha and the recalling
of the new house, so elections have to
be concluded before then.
In a country as huge and diverse as
India, nding a period when elections
can be held throughout the country is
not simple. The Election Commission,
which decides the schedule for the
elections, has to take into account the
weather. During winter, constituencies
may be snow-bound and during the
monsoons, access to remote areas is
restricted. The agricultural cycle has to
be considered so that the planting or
harvesting of crops is not disrupted.
Exam schedules are observed as
schools are used as polling stations
and teachers are employed as election
officials. Polling cannot take place
during religious festivals and public
holidays. In addition to all this, there
are also the logistical difculties that
go with holding an election, such as,
sending out ballot boxes, setting up
polling booths and recruiting ofcials
to oversee the elections.
Voter registration
The democratic system in India is
based on the principle of universal
adult suffrage; that any citizen over the
age of 18 can vote in an election. The
right to vote is irrespective of caste,
creed, religion or gender. Those who
are deemed to be of unsound mind and
people convicted of certain criminal
offences are not allowed to vote.
There has been a general increase in
the number of people voting in Indian
elections. In 1952, 61.16 per cent of the
electorate voted. By 1999, the turnout
for the general election was 59.99 per
cent. There have been even more rapid
increases in the turnout of women and
members of the scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes, who had tended
to be far less likely to participate in
elections. Voting for these groups has
moved closer to the national average.
Only those people with their names on
the electoral roll are allowed to vote.
The electoral roll is a list of all people
in the constituency who are registered
to vote in elections. The electoral roll
is normally revised every year to add
the names of those who turn 18 on
the 1
st
of January that year or have
moved into a constituency, and to
remove the names of those who have
died or moved out of a constituency.
To remove the names of those people
from the electoral roll, you can apply
to the electoral registration ofcer of
the constituency, who will update the
register. The updating of the electoral
roll only stops during an election
campaign, after the nominations for
candidates have closed.
In 1998 the commission took a historic
decision to computerise the entire
electoral rolls of 620 million voters.
This work has been completed and
now well printed electoral rolls are
available. The photo identity card
numbers of the voters have also been
printed in the electoral rolls, for cross
linking. The books of individual
parliamentary constituency rolls
have also been put on compact disc
roms. Both books and compact discs
are available for sale to the general
public. National and State parties are
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provided with copies of such books
and compact discs free of charge after
every revision of the electoral rolls.
In an attempt to improve the accuracy
of the election roll and prevent election
fraud, the election commission ordered
the making of photo identity cards for
all voters in the country in August 1993.
More than 400 million Identity cards
have been distributed since then.
Nominations
Any Indian citizen who is registered
as a voter and is over 25 years of age is
allowed to contest elections in the Lok
Sabha or State Legislative Assemblies.
For the Rajya Sabha the age limit is 30
years. Candidates for the Rajya Sabha
should be residents of the same state
as the constituency from which they
wish to contest.
Every candidate has to make a deposit
of Rupees 10,000/- for Lok Sabha
election and Rupees 5,000/- for
Rajya Sabha elections, except for
candidates from the scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes who pay half
of these amounts. The deposit is
refunded if the candidate receives
more than one-sixth of the total
number of valid votes polled in the
constituency. Nominations must be
supported at least by one registered
elector of the constituency in the
case of a candidate sponsored by a
registered party and by ten registered
electors from the constituency in the
case of other candidates. Returning
Officers, appointed by the election
commission are put in charge to
receive nominations of candidates
in each constituency and oversee the
formalities of the election.
In a number of seats in the Lok Sabha
the candidates can only be from
either one of the scheduled castes
or scheduled tribes. The number of
these reserved seats is meant to be
approximately proportional to the
number of people from scheduled
castes or scheduled tribes in each state.
If a candidate nominated by a
recognised party dies, the poll will
be adjourned to a later date xed by
the Election Commission. The party
concerned will nominate another
candidate within a period of seven
days of the issue of the notice.
Campaigns
The campaign period is the period
when the political parties present
their candidates and arguments, with
the hope of persuading people to
vote for their candidates and parties.
Candidates are given a week to present
their nomination papers. These are
scrutinised by the Returning O fcers,
and if not found to be in order can
be rejected after a summary hearing.
Validly nominated candidates can
withdraw within two days after
nominations have been scrutinised.
The ofcial campaign lasts at least two
weeks from the drawing up of the list
of nominated candidates and ofcially
ends 48 hours before polling closes.
During the campaign period the
political parties and contesting
candidates are expected to abide by
a model code of conduct evolved
by the election commission on the
basis of a consensus among political
parties. The model code laws lay
down broad guidelines as to how
the political parties and candidates
should conduct themselves during the
election campaign.
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The Model Code serves the following
purposes:
(a) It is intended to maintain the
election campaigns on healthy
lines.
(b) To avoid clashes and conflicts
between political parties and
their supporters.
(c) To ensure peace and order
during the campaign period
and thereafter, until the results
are announced.
(d) The model code also prescribes
guidelines for the ruling party
to ensure that a level field is
maintained. It also ensures that
the ruling party does not use
its official position to rig the
elections.
Once an election has been called,
parties issue manifestos detailing the
programmes they wish to implement
if elected to government, the strengths
of their leaders and the failures of
opposing parties and their leaders.
Slogans are used to popularise and
identify parties. Pamphlets and
posters are also distributed to the
electorate. Rallies and meetings where
the candidates try to persuade and
convince supporters, and denigrate
opponents are held throughout the
constituency to try and inuence as
many potential supporters as possible.
Party symbols printed on posters
and placards are also used in the
campaigns.
There are tight legal limits on the
amount of money a candidate can
spend during the election campaign.
Since December 1997, in most Lok
Sabha constituencies the limit was
Rupees 15,000,000, although in some
states the limit is Rupees 600,000. A
recent amendment in October 2003 has
increased these limits. For Lok Sabha
seats in bigger states, it is now Rupees
250,000. Similarly, for Rajya Sabha
seats in bigger states, it is now Rupees
100,000 while in other states and union
territories, it varies between Rupees
500,000 to Rupees 10,000,000. Although
supporters of a candidate can spend
as much as they like to help out with
a campaign, they have to get written
permission from the candidate. While
parties are allowed to spend as much
money on campaigns as they want,
recent supreme court judgements
have stipulated that political parties
account for money spent during the
campaign, or else such money will be
considered as having been given by
the candidates. Parties have therefore
refused some of the more extravagant
campaigning that was previously part
of Indian elections.
The election commission has allowed
all recognised national and state
parties free access to the state
owned electronic media-AIR and
Doordarshan on an extensive scale
for their campaigns during elections.
The total free time allocated extends
over 122 hours on the state owned
television and radio channels. This is
allocated equitably by combining a
base limit and additional time linked
to poll performance of the party in
recent elections.
Polling
Polling is normally held on a
number of different days in different
constituencies to enable the security
forces and those monitoring the
election to keep law and order and
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ensure that voting during the election
is fair.
After nomination of candidates
is complete, a list of competing
candidates is prepared by the
Returning Ofcer and ballot papers
are printed. Ballot papers are printed
with the names of the candidates
and the symbols allotted to each
of the candidates. Candidates of
recognised parties are allotted their
party symbols.
Voting is by secret ballot. Polling
stations are usually set up in public
institutions, such as schools and
community halls. To enable as many
electors as possible to vote, the ofcials
of the election commission try to
ensure that there is a polling station
within 2km of every voter. Each
polling station is open for at least 8
hours on the day of the election.
On entering the polling station, the
elector is checked against the electoral
roll and allocated a ballot paper. The
elector votes by marking the ballot
paper with a rubber stamp on or
near the symbol of the candidate of
his or her choice inside a screened
compartment in the polling station.
The voter then folds the ballot paper
and inserts it in a common ballot
box which is kept in full view of the
Presiding Ofcer and polling agents of
the candidates. This marking system
eliminates the possibility of ballot
papers being secretly taken out of the
polling station or not being put in the
ballot box.
Since 1998, the commission has
increasingly used electronic voting
machines instead of ballot boxes. In
2003 all state elections and by-elections
were held using EVMs. Encouraged
by this, the commission took a historic
decision to use only EVMs for the Lok
Sabha elections in 2004.
After the polling is completed,
the votes are counted under the
supervision of returning ofcers and
observers appointed by the election
commission. After the counting of
votes is over, the returning officer
declares the name of the candidate
to whom the largest number of votes
have been cast as the winner.
Any elector or candidate can le an
election petition if he or she thinks
there has been malpractice during
the election. An election petition is
not an ordinary civil suit, it is treated
as a contest in which the whole
constituency is involved. Election
petitions are tried by the High Court
of the State involved and if upheld
can even lead to the repeating of the
elections in that constituency.
In order to bring as much transparency
as possible to the elections, ofcials
are provided with facilities to cover
the elections although subject to
maintaining the secrecy of the vote.
Media persons are given special passes
to enter polling stations to cover the
poll process and the counting halls
during the actual counting of votes.
The role of political parties in
elections
(i) Political parties are an established
part of modern mass democracy
and the conduct of elections in
India is largely dependent on
the behaviour of political parties.
Although many candidates for
Indian elections are independent,
the winning candidates for Lok
Sabha elections usually stand
as members of political parties.
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Opinion polls suggest that people
tend to vote for a party rather
than a particular candidate.
(ii) Parties offer candidates’
organisational support. By
offering a broader election
campaign, looking at the record
of government and putting
forward alternative proposals
for government, they help voters
to make a choice about how the
government should be run.
Political parties have to be
registered with the election
commission.
(iii) The in India should be party is
structured and committed to
the principles of democracy,
secularism and socialism in
accordance with the Indian
constitution.
(iv) Party would uphold the
sovereignty, unity and integrity
of India. Parties are expected to
hold organisational elections and
have a written constitution. The
anti-defection law passed in 1985
prevents members of parliament
elected as candidates in one
party, from forming or joining a
new party unless they comprise
more than one-third of the
original party in the legislature.
(v) Depending on party’s length
political activity organisation
or success in elections, it can be
classified by the commission
to a higher category. Parties in
India are categorised by the
election commission depending
the above mentioned factors.
This determines a party’s light to
certain privileges such as access
to electoral rules and provision
of time for political broadcasts
on the state owned television and
radio stations.
(vi) Party symbols enable illiterate
voters to identify the candidate
of the party they wish to vote
for. National parties are given
a symbol that is for their use
only throughout the country.
State parties have the sole use
of a symbol in the state in which
they are recognised. Registered-
unrecognised parties can choose
a symbol from a selection of ‘free’
symbols.
(vii) Splits, mergers and alliances
have frequently disrupted the
composition of political parties.
This has led to a number of
disputes over which section of
a divided party gets to keep the
party symbol and how to classify
the resulting parties in terms
of national and state parties.
The election commission has to
resolve these disputes although
its decisions can be challenged in
the courts.
System Election
(i) Election to the Lok Sabha
All of India’s 25 states have
adopted a similar system for the
council of states as well as the
corresponding upper houses
of the states, that are indirectly
elected by members of the state
legislative assemblies.
The country is split up into
separate geographical areas
known as constituencies, and
electors cast one vote each for
a candidate. Voters elect 545
members of Lok Sabha (lower
house) from single-member
constituencies.
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There is also a non-executive
President and Vice-President
elected by the members of
Parliament and state legislative
assemblies.
The overall results of elections
to the Lok Sabha have never
been proportional. The candidate
who obtains the most votes, but
not necessarily a majority of
votes polled, is declared elected.
Support can often be divided by
setting candidates of the same
caste or religion against each
other.
(ii) Election to the Rajya Sabha
The members of the Rajya Sabha
are elected indirectly, rather
than by the citizens at large.
Rajya Sabha members are elected
by each state using the single
transferable vote system. Unlike
most federal systems, the number
of members returned by each
state is roughly proportional
to their population. At present,
there are 233 members of the
Rajya Sabha elected by the Lok
Sabhas, and there are also twelve
members nominated by the
President as representatives
of literature, science, art and
social services. The President
can also nominate 2 members
of the Lok Sabha if it is felt that
the representation of the Anglo-
Indian community is inadequate.
Rajya Sabha members can serve
for six years, and elections are
staggered with one third of the
assembly being elected every 2
years.
(iii)
Election to the Presidency and
Vice-Presidency
The President is elected by the
elected members of the Lok Sabha
and Rajya Sabha and serves for
a period of 5 years he or she can
stand for re-election. A formula
is used to allocate votes. There
should be a balance between
the population of each state and
the number of votes assembly
members from a state can cast.
This is to ensure there is an
equal balance between state and
national assembly members. If
no candidate receives a majority
of votes, there is a system by
which losing candidates re-vote
until one gains a majority.
The Vice-President is elected
by a direct vote of all elected
members and nominated
members of the Lok Sabha and
Rajya Sabha.
The single transferable vote
system
Elections for the members of the Rajya
Sabha and the President are carried
out using the single transferable vote
system. This system is designed to
ensure a more diverse representation
by reducing the opportunity for blocks
of voters. This is done by listing them
in order of preference. A threshold
number of votes known as the ‘quota’
is set, which candidates have to achieve
to be elected. For presidential elections,
the quota is set at more than half the
number of votes ensuring that the
winner is the candidate who gets a
clear majority.
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State Assemblies
India is a federal country and the
constitution gives the states and union
territories signicant control over their
own government. The Vidhan Sabhas
(legislative assemblies) are directly
elected bodies set up to carry out the
administration of the government in
the 25 states of India. In some states
there is a bicameral organisation
of legislatures with both an upper
and lower house. Two of the seven
union territories the National Capital
Territory of Delhi and Pondicherry
also have legislative assemblies.
Functions of government in
India
The government of India is a
combination of a federal and
parliamentary democracy. It has a
strong unitary spirit. The states have
limited powers compared to the federal
unions in the USA. There are three
arms of government in India namely:
1. The Legislature
2. The Executive
3. The Judiciary
1. The Legislature
India has two houses of Parliament,
the House of the People (Lok sabha)
and the council of the states (Rajya
Sabha).
(a) The Lok Sabha (Lower House)
The House of the people (Lok
Sabha) is the most powerful
house. It forms the federal
legislature. The Prime Minister
is chosen from the majority
parties or coalition of parties in
the House. Members of the Lok
Sabha serve for a ve-year term
unless the house is dissolved
before the end of the term.
The Lok-Sabha as the entire
Indian political system is
dominated by multi-partyism.
Upto a few years back the
Congress party, founded by
Indira Gandhi (1978) had been
the most powerful party in
Indian politics. However, the
Bharatiya Janata party has now
overshadowed the Congress
Party.
Functions of Lok Sabha
(i) The Lok Sabha articulates national
opinion.
(ii) It consolidates national views,
petitions and campaigns for
national good.
(iii) It advises, commands and even
disciplines stray leaders.
Fig. 9.7: The 12
th
President of India,
Pritbha Patil sworn in on 25
th
July 2007.
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Fig. 9.8: Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam; former
President of India.
(b) Rajya Sabha
The Upper House is one of the Houses
of the central Legislature. It has 245
members out of which 12 members
are nominated by the President to
represent special interests.
The Rajya Sabha does not handle
money bills. The house is not subject
to dissolution. However, one third of
its members retire at the end of every
two years.
State Legislatures handle legislation
covering:
(i) Criminal and civil procedure
(ii) Marriage and divorce
(iii) Trusts and
(iv) Contracts
2. The Executive
The Executive arm of the Central or
Federal Government of India comprises:
(a) The President
(b) The Prime Minister
(c) The Cabinet
(d) The Civil Service
(a) The President
The presi officer d of India is not
the chief-executive. He or she is a
ceremonial head of state. The president
is elected for a ve-year term and may
be re-elected for another term.
Functions of the President
The Presidential powers are largely
ceremonial except during a state of
emergency. The president performs
the following functions:
(i) Appoints the Prime Minister from
the majority party in the Lok
Sabha or a coalition of parties.
The Prime Minister runs the
government according to the
political composition of the Lok
Sabha.
(ii) Advises the Prime Minister.
(iii) Appoints the Attorney General.
(iv) Appoints ministers as adviced by
the Prime Minister.
(v) May proclaim a state of emergency
when there is a perceived threat
to the security of the state.
(vi) The President may impose direct
presidential rule at the state level
should the state legislature fail to
function.
Fig. 9.9: Dr. Manmohan Singh; has been
Prime Minister of India from 2004.
(vii)
The President may also dissolve
the Lok Sabha and call for
parliamentary elections. This is
especially so if the Prime Minister
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loses a vote of condence.
(viii)
Appoints Governors to head the
states. State governments, are free
to choose whether to have two
houses as central legislature or a
single house.
(b) The Prime Minister
The Prime minister is the executive
head of government. He or she is
appointed by the President. He or
she is the head of the majority party
in Parliament or a coalition of parties
in the Lok Sabha.
Functions of the Prime Minister
(i) Advises the President on the
appointments to the Cabinet.
(ii) Chairs Cabinet meetings.
(iii) He or she is the chief spokesperson
in the Lok Sabha and the
international forum.
(iv) Advises on the appointment of
the senior ofcers of government.
(v) Recommends persons for award
of civil honours and distinctions.
(vi) With the advise of the President,
the Prime Minister can dissolve
the Lok Sabha.
(c) The Cabinet
It is the central decision making body
of the government. The Indian Cabinet
is made up of ministers appointed
by the President on the advice of the
Prime Minister. The Cabinet has a
collective responsibility.
All ministers are bound by decisions
and policies adopted by the Cabinet. A
Minister is therefore not supposed to
challenge Cabinet decisions in public.
The M inisters of the Indian Cabinet
like elsewhere in the Commonwealth,
share consequences of collective
responsibility.
Each M inister is responsible to the Lok
Sabha in the case of Federal Ministers.
In appointing Ministers there is
consideration for regional balance
and population groups based on
religion, language, caste and gender.
The Cabinet portfolio is assigned on
the basis of competence and interest.
However, demonstrated loyalty
to the party, articulation of party
policies and loyalty to the party leader
inuence appointment to the Cabinet.
A Minister may not hold a Cabinet
post for more than six months without
a seat in the house of the Legislature.
Functions of the Cabinet
(i) Collectively, the Cabinet
formulates policy matters and
issues that affect the management
of state or federal government.
(ii) It advises the Prime Minister and
the President on various aspects
of the state government or federal
government.
(iii) The Cabinet defends government
policies and decisions both within
and outside the two houses of
Parliament.
(iv) It generates bills that are passed
on to either the state Parliament
or the House of the People.
(v) Co-ordinates and controls
activities, programmes, and
functions of the departments in
their respective ministries.
(d) Civil Service
The day to day management of the
affairs of the Indian government is
performed by the civil service. The
Permanent Secretaries, public service
agencies, the Indian administrative
service and specialised service units
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play signicant roles in the functioning
of the government.
The Union of the Public Service
Commission has elaborate and
competitive examination and
recruitment rules. The commission
also sets and reviews terms and
conditions of service including
payment of salaries, promotion,
discipline and retirement.
The police and armed forces service
are part of the civil service. The Indian
Police service includes:
(i) The Central Bureau of
Investigation.
(ii) The Border Security Force.
(iii) The Volunteer Auxiliary Force of
home guards.
(iv) The Central Reserve Police Force.
(v) The Central Industrial Security
Force.
The combined armed forces of India
comprise the army, the navy, the
coast guard, and the air force. They
are among the largest in the world.
Each unit is made up of well trained,
highly professional and well equipped
service persons.
3. The Judiciary
India has a judiciary that is appointed
by the President. It is by tradition an
independent judiciary. There have
been some measures instituted to
guarantee that independence. Such
guarantees include:
(a) Salaries paid to Judges cannot
be reduced nor be subject to
discussion by the Legislature.
(b) A Judge cannot be removed from
ofce except by address to the
houses of the central Legislature,
that is, the Lok Sabha and the
Rajya sabha. Such removal
should be voted by 2/3 of the
Legislatures in both houses.
The legal system of India is an
outgrowth of the British colonial rule
and legal structures. The combination
gave birth to the Anglo-Indian legal
system. The administration of these
laws was adopted largely from the
British structure with a significant
provision for the fundamental human
rights. These included:
(i) The right to equality before the
law.
(ii) Freedom from discrimination.
(iii) Equality of opportunity.
(iv) The right to preserve liberty.
(v) The freedom of religion.
Any law that is not consistent with
these basic human rights is null and
void.
The structure of the court
system
India has a court system ranging
from the Lower Session Court and
District Courts to the Supreme Court
at the top. The judiciary uses this
court system to interpret the law and
administer justice.
Jurisdiction of courts is attached to
subject matter. Different courts have
been empowered to decide different
types of suits.
Judges specialise on the acts to handle.
For example, there could be a judge to
handle matters relating to marriage
and another judge specialising on the
performance of Contracts Act.
(a) The District Courts
This is the lowest of the ordinary court
systems. They operate at county or
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district level. These include the Session
Courts, and the District Courts. Every
court at this lower level has its local
or territorial limits beyond which
it cannot exercise its jurisdiction.
A District Judge can only exercise
jurisdiction within the district and not
outside. A court has no jurisdiction
to try a suit for immovable property
situated beyond its limits.
These lower courts have original
jurisdiction in civil and some criminal
matters. Small caste courts hear and
try petty offences. The District Court
is an appellate court for cases from
such courts.
Apart from criminal offences, lower
courts also hear suits relating to:
(i) The right to property
(ii) Right of worship
(iii) Religious matters
(iv) Right to share offerings
(v) Damages from civil wrongs
(vi) Performance of contracts
(vii) Marriage
(viii)
Rent
(ix) Right of franchise
(x) Caste questions.
(b) The High Court
Each state has a High Court.
Its jurisdiction is within the state.
The High Court has specic functions
namely:
(i) To hear and try cases for the rst
time. In this case it has original
jurisdiction.
(ii) To hear appeals from S ession
Courts, District Courts, tribunals
and Industrial Courts. Appeals
are only on the basis of points of
law. Here the High Court is an
appellate court.
(iii) To correct any oversights of law
or irregularities made in the
lower courts.
(iv) As a constitutional court, the
High Court on request by a
party in dispute, can hear and
determine whether the case
before it is constitutional or not.
(v) The High Court also hears appeals
arising from decisions and
judgements made by professional
groups such as the law societies.
(vi) The High Court hears cases of
serious crime such as murder and
robbery.
(vii) They also hear cases involving
property of prescribed value.
(c) The Supreme Court
It is India’s highest court of
appeal. The Supreme Court of
India has 12 Justices appointed
by the President. They serve until
the age of 65 years.
The Supreme Court has specific
functions, namely:
(i) It is the guardian and interpreter
of the Constitution.
(ii) It determines the constitutional
right of the union government
legislation. Parliamentary
decisions should not contradict
the Constitution.
(iii) It adjudicates disputes between
the union and the states as well
as disputes between two or more
states.
(iv) It also handles appeals from the
High Court.
(v) Appeals to the Supreme Court
involve a substantial question of
law.
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(d) Special Courts (Tailung)
The Indian legal statutes provide
for specialised Courts that can
handle matters concerning:
(i) Taxation
(ii) Commerce and industry
(iii) Welfare
(iv) Defence
Sitting on the ‘Tailung’ are popularly
elected members known as the
Panchyat. They operate only in the
rural districts. They are equivalent
to the district or county magistrate’s
courts.
Activities
1. Organise a group discussion on the nature of campaigns in the American
electoral process.
2. Imagine you were the head of the Indian judiciary, in a ve minutes
address, explain the fundamental duties of a citizen in India.
3. Observe a video recording of an American and British Presidential
campaign.
Exercise
1. State the functions of the House of Lords and the House of Commons in
Britain.
2. Discuss six functions of the American Senate.
3. Explain six powers of the president of USA.
4. State the functions of the Monarchy in Britain.
5. State the functions of the Independent Election Commission in India.
6. Describe the structure of the Court system in India.
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1. Abdicate – The surrender by a ruler or a king of his/her
position/To give up ofcially one’s position as king
or queen.
2. Ad hoc – Something that is constituted hurriedly and was
not planned. For example, an ad hoc committee to
monitor political development in a country.
3. Admonish – To disapprove of.
4. Anschluss – The union of Austria and Germany.
5. Appeasement – It was a policy whereby Britain and France made
concessions to Germany in order to avoid war and
conict.
6. Arbitration – A system where disputes between two parties are
settled by a neutral person or a group that has been
chosen by the parties in dispute.
7. Armistice – A temporary cease-re.
8. Assassination – The act of murdering a ruler, politician or other
important persons.
9. Authoritarian – Not democratic, usually applied by a government
which imposes strict discipline and represses its
opponents.
10. Blitzkrieg – A German term which refers to a swift attack in
times of war.
11. Bolshevik – A supporter of the system of government that was
introduced in the USSR in 1917 after the Czar was
overthrown.
12. Bourgeoisie – The middle class usually made up of business
people.
13. Caste – A hereditary class, in India whose members
are socially equal. It is usually associated with
occupations and means of livelihood, for example,
priests, rulers and warriors, traders and farmers, and
artisans. Persons who fall outside these divisions are
referred to as outcastes or untouchables.
GLOSSARY
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14. Conscription – Compulsory military service.
15. Consultation – A meeting that is held to exchange opinions and
ideas in order to reach a consensus.
16. Capitalism – An economic system whereby trade and industry
are privately owned, i.e. they are not owned or
totally controlled by the state.
17. Culminate – End in/Result in.
18. Communism – A political and economic system that is based on
the state ownership of the means of production.
Ideally the goods and wealth produced should be
shared equally among the people.
19. Coup d’ etat – An attempt to seize power using force or threat of
force.
20. Decolonisation – The ending of colonial rule.
21. De facto – By fact, that is, without due consideration to the
laws of the land.
22. De jure – By law, for example the right of a particular group
to govern by law.
23. Dictator – A ruler who has absolute power over his/her
subjects.
24. Dictatorship – Rule by a dictactor/absolute rule by one person.
25. Delimitation – To limit/To x the limit of.
26. Demilitarisation – Removing military forces or installations from an
area or country.
27. Dominion – A self-governing territory within the British
Empire.
28. Disarmament – Getting rid of arms, reducing the amounts of arms
or abolishing them altogether.
29. Disenfranchise – To deny one the right to vote.
30. Embargo – An ofcial order forbidding trade, especially with
another country.
31. Entente – A formal declaration of friendship/an understanding
between two or more nations.
32. Feasibility studies – Studies that are undertaken to ascertain whether a
proposed project will succeed.
33. Fiscal – Financial
34. Frontiers – A nation’s borders.
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35. Imperialism – The rule of one people by another people, especially
when this rule is exercised in the interests of the
more powerful group.
36. Impetus – Encouragement.
37. Indoctrinate – To train a person to accept a set of ideas without
questioning them.
38. Kaiser – The title of the King of Germany in the period
between 1871 when Germany become a United
Nation, and 1918, when World War I ended.
39. Land adjudication – The registration of land and issue of title deeds for
the same.
40. Mandated territories – Territories that were administered by other nations
on the authority of the League of Nations after
World War I. These territories were former German
colonies.
41. Militarism – A belief in the idea that a nation should use force
to get what it wants.
42. Monroe Doctrine – A declaration made by James Monroe, President of
the USA in 1823 to the effect that the USA would
not intervene in European affairs.
43. Munition – Military supplies such as tombs and large guns.
44. Mutiny – A situation where soldiers refuse to obey the person
in charge of them and try to take control.
45. Nationalism – Love for and pride in one’s nation especially in
believing it to be better than any other nation/
Desire to see one’s nation organised powerfully
and free from supression by other nations.
46. Non-viable projects – Projects that are not likely to succeed.
47. Onslaught – A erce attack against an opponent/opponents.
48. Ottoman Empire – The Empire of Turkey/Turkish Empire.
49. Pact – A mutual understanding or agreement that is
reached between two or more parties , for example,
the Warsaw Pact.
50. Plebiscite – A vote by all citizens on an important political
issue.
51. Populist – A person who believes in the right and ability
of the common people to play a major part in
government.
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52. Propaganda – Information that is spread in a planned or ofcial
way especially by a government in order to
inuence public opinion.
53. Proxy – The right given to a person to represent another as
a voter in an election, that is, voting by proxy.
54 Purge – The act of getting rid of disloyal elements in a
nation.
55. Re-armament – The building up of arms after having reduced
them.
56. Referral hospital – A hospital that treats patients who are referred
there from distant regions, for example, Kenyatta
National Hospital and Moi Teaching and Referral
Hospital.
57. Reparations – The money that is paid by a defeated nation
after a war if that nation was responsible for the
occurrence of the war.
58. Revolution – A major change in the political and social order in
a country.
59. Sanctions – Penalties or forms of punishment that could be taken
against an offending state. They may be diplomatic,
economic or military.
60. Self-determination – The right of people to determine their own fate, for
example, to decide how they should be governed
and by who.
61. Secession – To formally leave an organisation, for example
a party especially because there has been a
disagreement about its aims.
62. Subversion – The act of destroying the power and inuence of a
government or an established system.
63. Suffrage – A right to vote in national elections.
64. Terrestrial – Refers to the earth, for example, terrestrial life refers
to the creatures that live on the earth.
65. Totalitarian – An undemocratic government which permits no
rival parties.
66. Tyranny – The exercise of power in an unjust and cruel
manner.