PRE-COLONIAL ERA

Introduction to history

History is the study of past events. The past can be millions of years ago. It

can also be as recent as yesterday. In history we study about past leaders,

political structures, military organisations, our ceremonies and our means

of livelihood in the past. You can now see that history is not only political

or about politics. We study social and economic history too.

Sources of information on history

These are things, places or people from where we get historical information.

It is these sources of history that make us know what happened in the past.

The sources of information on history are divided into:

(i) Primary sources (ii) Secondary sources (iii) Tertiary sources

Primary sources

They include:

(a) Resource people

We have individuals who are experts in history and they teach others on what

happened in the past. These include those who have undergone western

education in history and those who have not. Some elderly people like our

grandfathers and grandmothers, aunts and uncles have lived long enough

and seen a lot. Some have fought in wars, others have entered regional and

international agreements as signatories or as witnesses while others have

migrated to other places for various reasons. We are able to get a lot of

information from them.

(b) Archaeology

This is the study of history through the excavation of sites and analysis of

the materials found there. Archaeologists use fossils and artefacts to know

the history of people in the past. Archaeologist Richard Lobban and his

Italian and Russian friends unearthed the ancient and previously unknown

Meroitic temple in 2011.This temple is believed to have been dedicated to the

Unit

Egyptian sun God Amun. Many small pyramids have also been unearthed at

Sedeinga by other archaeologists. Archaeologists work with paleontologists

and geologists. Archaeology mainly gives us pre-historic information.

Fig. 1.1: Zande spear and a Toposa mask

When one listens to people speak different languages he concludes a lot

from the languages spoken. Some languages are similar while some have

a few words that are similar with communities living very far from them.

A lot is deduced from this. It can mean these people are related by blood

or have interacted with the others in various ways like trade, migration or

intermarriage. Language helps us trace migration patterns of communities.

(d) Anthropology

This is the scientific study of a people’s way of life mainly through observation.

Anthropologists live among communities they are studying for years to know

their culture well. A people’s cultural practice reveals a lot about their history.

They come to know about their ceremonies, their relationships and many

other activities.

(e) Genetics

Through the study of human, animal and plant genetics we are able to find

out which communities are related to one another by blood. We also come to

know which areas domesticated what plants and animals and at what time.

(f) Oral lore

This is whereby cultural beliefs, traditions, and practices of communities are

transmitted and preserved orally from generation to generation. The people’s

culture is found in their songs, folktales, chants and legends among others.

Songs were sung at particular times in different communities. In the words of

traditional songs, there is a lot of history.

Secondary sources

They include:

(a) Written materials

They include manuscripts, stone tablets, clay tablets, books, magazines,

newspapers and many others. In history, writing does not only mean writing

on paper with pen. Writings were done in ancient times on stone or mud

using sharp objects. Some that were written on stone and bricks have lasted

up to now and have been discovered and read. In Sudan, writings dating

back to about the 6th Century have been found in Kush. In its capital Napata,

some buildings like temples were built from baked bricks and sandstone.

Hieroglyphic writings were carved on the walls of the temples and painted

with bright colours.

Writing in ancient times was also done on skins and papyrus. With the

discovery of the printing press, printed sources of history like books were

made and produced in large numbers.

Fig.1.2: A stone tablet, a book and a newspaper

These include spears, tools, clothes, pots. Each community had their own

unique items that they used that we can use to identify them. However, those

who stayed to each other could copy skills of making items from one another.

This copying has led to cases of different communities having similar items.

Tertiary sources

They include:

(a) Electronic sources

These include radios and television, documentary films and the internet. The

internet is a one stop shop for historic information. Radios and televisions air

news and other important historical documentaries.

Activity 1.1

In groups discuss the following questions.

1. Research and find out at least 5 famous documents that talk about

the history of Africa in the pre-colonial period. Write down what the

documents talk about.

2. Who was the first president of Sudan? How did you first know this?

3. You come from different communities. Is there any of you who

comes from a community whose traditional pots, houses, baskets or

spears look like for another community? Give three reasons why you

think this is the case.

4. In south Sudan we have Nilotes and Cushites among others. Why

are they categorized as so? Are there some Cushitic words that are

found in Nilotic languages and vice versa? Why?

5. Give six reasons why you think it is important to study history.

Present your answers in class.

Activity 1.2

Oral lore

1. In traditional Africa, there were songs sang during marriages, war,

birth, naming, circumcision, tattooing, harvesting and so on. Do you

know any of these songs? Sing the song to the class.

2. These songs were sung hundreds of years ago. How did you come to

know them?

Pre-colonial Trade in Africa

In the pre-colonial period, there were different types of trade. There was local

trade which involved a few people and occurred within a village or several

neighbouring villages for example among the Nuer or between the Dinka and

the Nuer.

There was regional trade that involved different regions of Africa like the Long

distance trade and the Trans Saharan trade. There was also the international

trade that involved other countries outside the African continent like the

Indian Ocean trade at the coast of East Africa and the Trans -Atlantic trade.

In this class we shall concentrate on the regional trade in Africa.

Regional trade

The Trans-Saharan trade

This trade occurred across the Sahara as the name goes. It involved two

regions: North Africa and West Africa. Various reasons favoured its growth:

1. There was a high demand for trade goods both in the north and West

of Africa. North Africans for example wanted gold from the West. The

Byzantine Empire which controlled North Africa and the Middle East

wanted gold to make coins and ornaments.

2. There were strong rulers who supported the trade by ensuring that

trade routes were secured. These rulers include the rulers of Mali and

Songhai kingdoms.

3. There were oases in the desert where traders and their animals could

get water.

4. There were desert tribes like the Tuaregs who guided traders through

the Sahara desert.

5. There was local trade in both regions that supplied trade goods to the

wider trade.

Organisation of the Trans-Saharan trade

It is traders from the North who moved with their goods to the West of Africa.

Rich Arab merchants financed the trade. The trade goods from the north

included salt, horses, cloth, glassware and fruits like dates. The horse was

at first used to carry the goods but as the Sahara became drier the camel

replaced it. The camels used to be fattened for months in readiness for the

long journey to West Africa which took almost three months. The traders

embarked on their journey after the rainy season was over to avoid desert

storms. The traders moved in caravans for security making this trade to be

known as the caravan trade. A caravan was made up of almost 1000 camels

others were as large as 12,000 camels.

The Tuaregs guided the traders through the desert. They provided security

from dangerous desert tribes. Runners were sent ahead of the caravan to

fetch water for the traders even before they reached the oasis as many times

the traders did not carry sufficient water to last between oases. The Tuaregs

took care of the oasis.

KEY:

Major Trade Routes

Feeder Routes

Main Trade Items

Trade Centres

Sahara Desert

Salt

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Fruits, Cloth,

Beads

Cotton,

Iron tools

Salt

Gold

Kola nuts

Slaves

Copper

Algiers

Wedan

Jenne

Timbuktu

Audaghosti

Kano

Taghaza

Sijilmasa

Fez

Tripoli

Ghadames

Cairo

Murzuk

Bilma

Ahodes

Kumbi

Saleh

Tual

Takedda

Horses,

Dates

Gold

M e d i t e r r a n e a n

S e a

Red Sea

Fig 1.3: Trans-Saharan trade routes

On reaching West Africa, they exchanged the goods with West Africa goods

like slaves, gold, ivory, kola nuts and gum. They used barter trade in their

exchange. There was no common language between the traders from the

North and West. They exchanged the goods through gestures. This made the

trade to be known as the silent trade.

Traders used particular trade routes from the North to West Africa. One such

trade route ran from Fez in Morocco to the Niger belt. Another started at

Tunis through Agades, Kano then to Hausa. There was another that started

from Tripoli through Murzuk, Bilma then Karnem Bornu. Later currency was

introduced in the trade. Copper from Takedda was used as currency. Berbers

and Tuaregs acted as middle men in this trade.

After exchanging the goods, the traders from the North embarked on their

journey back North

Note that slaves at this time were relatively well treated and used as domestic

servants. It is not like in the transatlantic trade where they were treated so

badly. Slavery was an accepted institution in Africa and especially in the

Muslim world. The wealthy Berbers in the Maghreb took very many slaves

from West Africa to the Maghreb.

Decline of the trade

The following factors led to the decline of the Tran-Saharan trade.

1. The Portuguese started trading along the Western Africa coast from

around 1445. They were followed by other Europeans. The North

Africans preferred to trade with the Europeans than the West Africans as

the journey to the coast was not as risky as the long dangerous journey

through the Sahara desert.

2. The Europeans started going to the interior of West Africa from the

Atlantic coast to get trade items. This reduced the role of African middle

men in the trade.

3. Morocco attacked major trading towns of Timbuktu and Gao from

1591-1592. She destroyed its buildings and property and exiled some

of its residents.

4. The Tuaregs who were guides started turning against the traders and

robbing them.

5. Salt, which was a main trade commodity from the north got exhausted.

6. The campaign against slave trade and eventual abolition of the slave

trade reduced items of trade as slaves were part of the trade goods.

The impact of the Trans-Saharan trade

1. This trade resulted in the growth of urban centers which were built from

the wealth of the trade. Such towns included Timbuktu, Ghadames,

Taghaza ,Kumbi saleh and Marakesh.

2. Islam spread from the North to the West along the trade routes.

3. There were increased attacks on other communities by those who got

horses and guns from the trade.

4. Kingdoms grew from the wealth of the trade like the Mali, Ghana and

Songhai Empire.

5. The agents and traders grew very rich from the trade both in West and

North Africa.

6. The traders from the North introduced Islamic learning institutions in

West Africa.

7. Local trade grew so much as it provided the goods for the Trans-Saharan

trade.

8. Arabic architecture was introduced in West Africa and the locals started

using it.

9. Transport was improved in West Africa due to introduction of camels

and horses.

The Long distance trade

This trade occurred between the East Coast of Africa and its interior in the

19th century. It involved a very large geographical area covering present day

Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Congo and Sudan among

other. Goods from this trade were mostly sold at the coast of East Africa to

Europeans and Asians in the coastal trade.

Factors that favoured its growth

1. Availability of trade goods like copper, slaves, ivory and salt.

2. Demand for goods like ivory, gold and slaves. The Omani Arabs at the

coast of Kenya needed very many slaves to work on the plantations

they had established at the coast of East Africa. The Sudanese Arabs

also wanted slaves and ivory so did European countries and the United

States of America. Slaves were needed to work on the sugar plantations

of Mauritius and Reunion Islands.

3. There were leaders who organized the trade in their areas for example

Chief Kivoi of the Akamba in Kenya, Sultan Seyyid Said from Zanzibar

and Tippu Tip from the Nyamwezi.

4. The sultan of Zanzibar made deals with leaders in the interior of East

Africa to ensure the safety of his traders.

5. The sultan introduced a uniform custom tax thought the whole area he

controlled in East Africa and this encouraged trade.

Organisation of the Long distance trade

Traders in Kenya like the Akamba organised themselves into caravans that

went deep in the interior of Kenya to get ivory. The Akamba were good hunters

and acted as middlemen in this trade. They carried with them European goods

like cloths and brass wire which they exchanged with traders in the interior.

In Tanganyika communities involved included the Yao, Nyamwezi and

Swahili. The Yao raided for slaves and ivory in the interior and supplied them

to the town of Kilwa at the Coast. The Nyamwezi also raided for slaves

and transported them together with ivory, copper and salt to the coast. The

Nyamwezi went beyond Lake Tanganyika and Malawi into what is now

Eastern Congo. Gold in this trade was from Zimbabwe and was sold to Sofala

which traded with Kilwa.

Fig.1.4: Map of the long distance trade here showing the trade routes, the people

involved and the trade goods

In the northern part of Uganda traders from Khartoum raided the area for

slaves and ivory. By the 1870s they had raided up to Lang’o area. The Mahdist

revolution led to the decline of the Khartoum trade as it cut off Egypt from

the North.

From the Somali ports of Mogadishu and Brava, traders followed routes into

northern Kenya or trekked into Ethiopia making use of trade routes that

linked the Red sea and the Indian Ocean to get commodities.

In Central Africa Msiri made contacts with Angolan traders and sent traders

to Benguela and Bagamoyo selling ivory and copper in exchange for guns

and gunpowder.

Later Swahili and Arab traders from the east coast dominated this trade.

They chose to go to the interior and get the goods themselves. In Kenya, this

decision made the Akamba to lose their position as middlemen in this trade.

Caravans of about a thousand men each moved with their animals from the

East coast to the interior of East Africa. The Arab and Swahili traders from

the coast were armed with guns got from the coastal trade with Europeans.

The sultan of Zanzibar, Seyyid Said talked with leaders of the interior to

allow coastal traders safe passage in the interior. Some of his traders were

not taxed as they passed through lands like in Nyamwezi. The Arabs and

Swahili dominated the route which stretched from the coast to Tabora, Lake

Tanganyika and to Buganda. Their main trading centres were Ujiji and Tabora.

Traders used particular routes to trade. The captured slaves were used to

carry the trade goods. Ivory in particular was very heavy. They were beaten

by the slave traders to walk faster. Those who were unable were shot dead or

left to die in the forests.

The trading centre of Bagamoyo in the republic of Tanzania got its name

from the Swahili word Kubwaga moyo meaning to give up or to lose hope.

Bagamoyo was at the tip of mainland Tanzania. From there slaves were put

on ships to Zanzibar where they were sold at the notorious slave market.

Captured slaves from mainland Tanzania always had the hope of escaping

from their captors but when they reached at Bagamoyo the hope of ever

escaping or seeing their families again dwindled.

Slaves who were got from the interior were sold at the coast to Arab plantation

owners in the towns of Zanzibar, Mombasa, Malindi, Kilwa, and Pemba among

others. They worked on farms and homes as domestic servants. Others were

bought by Europeans and Americans to go work on plantations, homes and

mines. The slaves were kept in dug out holes in chains waiting selling. They

were chained on metallic studs. Others were kept in natural caves like at

Shimoni, Mombasa. They were sold through auctioning. Such holding holes

were found in the coastal towns like Zanzibar and Mombasa. Zanzibar was

the main slave market. From Zanzibar slaves were taken to Arabia, Yemen,

Turkey, India and Persia. They were used as sailors in Persia, pearl divers

in the Gulf, soldiers in the Omani army and as workers on the salt pans of

Mesopotamia.

In summary this trade was also a caravan trade. We had caravans from the

Indian Ocean coast into the interior of East Africa. Others came from the

interior to the coast. Barter trade was the method of trade but currency trade

was also done. Human transport was mainly used in carrying goods together

with animal transport. The traders used particular trade routes. The trade

also involved middlemen. It involved countries covering East Africa, central

Africa and southern Africa. The main commodities from East Africa interior

were slaves and ivory.

Even as efforts to stop slave trade intensified in East Africa, the long distance

trade persisted for long because there was an internal market for slaves. In

some regions of East Africa there was slavery and slave trade up to the 20th

century. The Arab slave traders did not want to let go of their lucrative trade.

They possessed modern firearms therefore it was hard to defeat them even

with the involvement of European powers.

Effects of the Long distance trade

1. There was a lot of fear in the inhabitants of East Africa due to slave

raids.

2. Many people were displaced.

3. There was a lot of deaths.

4. Many families were separated as some were taken away as slaves.

5. Caravans of traders spread diseases like smallpox into the interior of

East Africa.

6. There was animosity between communities due to slave raids.

7. Some areas became depopulated. The Yao used to transport slaves to

the coast but they did not raid for slaves. This was the situation until

they were raided. They retaliated by getting stronger rifles and became

ruthless raiders from around 1885. They attacked areas around Kilwa

and Lake Malawi until they became depopulated.

8. Many people in East Africa became rich from the trade as they were

suppliers of commodities. Others grew food to feed the traders who

passed in their land. Notable leaders who grew rich were Mirambo,

Tippu Tip, Msiri and Nyungu ya Mawe.

9. There was increased insecurity in the whole of East Africa as communities

raided one another. The Baganda for example got guns from the Arab

traders and raided their neighbours.

10. Some kingdoms collapsed. The Shambaa kingdom in Tanzania collapsed

in the 1870s as its rulers turned on their own people to sell them as

slaves.

11. Trading centres developed some grew into towns. Examples are Elureko

(Mumias) in western Kenya.

12. Islam was introduced in the interior of East Africa by the Muslim Arab

traders. In Kenya for example the area of Mumias has many Muslims

yet the surrounding areas are Christian. It was a stopping place for

Swahili and Arab traders on their way to Uganda.

13. New trade goods were introduced in the interior of East Africa like

clothes.

14. Currency trade was introduced in the interior of east Africa.

15. The trade led to eventual colonization of East Africa as abolitionists

appealed to their mother countries to come and stop slave trade.

16. Plantation agriculture flourished at the coast and other parts of the

world due to slave labour

Factors leading to the decline of the Long distance trade

1. The campaign in the world against slave trade. One of the main

commodities in this trade was slaves. Anti-slave treaties were signed

that outlawed slavery and slave trade in European nations and their

colonies. This reduced the demand for slaves. Christian missionaries

preached against slave trade and set up rehabilitation centres for freed

slaves in East Africa. Slave ships were waylaid in the seas and captured

and the slaves freed.

2. Colonisation of East Africa. Any European nation that claimed any area

had to stamp out slave trade and introduce legitimate trade.

3. Many European and American countries got industrialised and machines

replaced the demand for human labour.

Activity 1.4

Organise yourselves into groups. Each group should answer one question.

1. Desert conditions are very harsh. What problems do you think Trans-

Saharan traders must have encountered in the Sahara desert?

2. There are tales of horror in the long distance trade that was meted on

the captured slaves. One talks of a child who was chopped off the back

of its mother as it kept on crying disturbing the caravan. Find out other

horror stories and narrate them to the class.

3. Find out the various anti slave trade treaties that were signed that

directly affected East Africa.

4. In the effects of the Trans Saharan and Long Distance trade sort them

out into social political and economic effects.

5. Find out the role of the church in ending slave trade in East Africa.

Present your answers in class

The Coastal trade

This trade occurred between the East African coast, the interior of East Africa,

Europe, Asia, America and the Middle East. Traders from the interior of East

Africa brought trade goods to the coast and exchanged them with Europeans

and Arabs. These goods which included copper, slaves, ivory, leopard skin

were exported to Europe, India, America and the Middle East. This trade

occurred at the same time as the long distance trade. One led to the other.

Factors that favoured the development of this trade

1. The long distance trade provided the much needed goods.

2. Seyyid said introduced stronger currency in form of copper coins from

India that facilitated trade.

3. He signed trade agreements with the Americans, French and British

ensuring market for products from East Africa.

4. There was high demand for goods from East Africa especially slaves and

ivory. Arabia was in high demand for slaves from non- Muslim areas as

Islam does not allow enslaving of a fellow Muslim. Portuguese needed

slaves for their plantations in Brazil. The ones from Angola were not

enough.

5. The coast of East Africa had deep harbours good for the foreigners to

anchor their ships.

6. Existence of trading centres at the coastal towns made exchange of

goods easier.

Organisation of the Coastal trade

Swahili, Arabs, Akamba, Yao and Nyamwezi traders organised caravans into

the interior of East Africa where they got slaves, copper, ivory, salt, hoes

and other items. They used slaves to carry the commodities to the East

African coast. The sultan of Zanzibar brought Indian Banyans who loaned

money to traders. At the coast, the trade goods were exchanged with goods

like cloth beads and guns. The exchange was in barter or currency. Slaves

were decorated to attract the highest amount of money on the day of sale.

At Zanzibar for example they were tied on a tree and whipped. The more

one endured the whips, the higher price he or she fetched. The foreigners

then transported the goods to their countries using ships mainly through the

Indian Ocean and the Atlantic.

Factors leading to the decline of the Coastal trade

This trade actually still exists today apart from the slave trade in it. East Africa

still trades with the Middle East, India and Europe through the Indian Ocean

only that this time it is legitimate trade.

However, there was a decline in this trade especially towards the end of the

19th Century and beginning of the 20th Century. This was because of the

abolition of the slave trade. Slaves were a major trade item in this trade.

When East Africa was colonised and new states established after the partition

of Africa, trade between states was curtailed. Colonialists restricted the

movement of Africans. They were no longer free to trade as before.

Impacts of the Coastal trade on the communities involved

1. It led to good relations between East Africa, the Arab world, Europe and

Asia especially trade links.

2. Traders grew rich from this trade.

3. Slave trade led to deaths and fear among Africans.

4. The suffering of slaves attracted missionaries and humanitarians into

East Africa to come and stop the slave trade.

5. There was increased warfare in Africa as slave raids were carried out.

Keywords

Colonialism: This is the occupation and control of one nation by

another.

Scramble: Therushandstrugglefordi󰀨erentpartsofAfricaby

the European powers.

Partition: ReferstothedividingofAfricaamongtheEuropean

powersthatwereinterestedincoloniesinAfrica.

Direct rule: This was a system of administration where

indigenous political and administrative institutions

and leaders were replaced with a European system.

Indirect rule: Indirect rule involved the use of indigenousAfrican

rulers within colonial administration.

Assimilation: Assimilation was a system of administration that

stated that laws applied to all colonies.

Collaboration: ThisreferstocooperationofsomeAfricancommunities

to European colonisers.

Resistance: ThisreferstothestruggleconductedbytheAfricans

against the imposition of colonial rule.

Primary resistors: Societies which opposed colonial rule right from the

arrival of the Europeans.

Mixed reaction: This was a mixed response to colonial rule where by

somecommunitieswouldresistrstthencollaborate

later and vice versa.

Association: ApolicyadoptedbytheFrenchaftertheassimilation

policy failed.

Civilise: To bring to a stage of social development considered

to be more advanced.

End of Unit Exercise

Answer the following questions in your notebook.

1. List five examples of electronic sources of history.

2. Identify five items used as ‘paper’ in the ancient world before the

invention of paper.

3. What makes archaeology a good source of history?

4. What is trade?

5. What do you think are some factors that led to the beginning of

trade in the world?

6. Give five social effects of the long distance trade.

7. Which sultan took over from Seyyid Said?

8. What factors facilitated trade between the East African coast and the

rest of the world in the 19th century?

9. What were the economic effects of the Trans Saharan trade?

10. Using examples, explain factors that led to the decline of pre-colonial

trade in Africa.

COLONIAL RULE

Introduction to colonial rule

Colonialism is defined as the occupation and control of one nation by

another. Colonialism involves an external nation taking complete control

of a territory in another area. Colonised people did not invite the colonial

powers and they had no say in how they were governed. Colonialism is by

definition and practice is undemocratic. Colonisation of Africa occured

between 1970s adn 1900s. Colonisation of Africa involved the scramble

and partition of Africa.

The scramble for Africa refers to the rush and struggle for different parts

of Africa by the European powers. Partition of Africa refers to the dividing

of Africa among the European powers that were interested in colonies

in Africa. Africa was partitioned and shared among European powers

in a conference known as the Berlin conference of 1884 to 1885. There

were seven European countries which colonised Africa. These European

countries were Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Portugal and

Italy.

Activity 2.1

1. In pairs, use your dictionary to search for the meaning of the following

words:

a) Colonialism

b) Scramble

c) Partition

2. Who were the European competitors in colonising Africa?

3. Which European power colonised South Sudan?

Unit

Activity 2.2

1. With the help of your Atlas, locate the European countries that colonised

Africa in the map.

Reasons for colonisation of Africa

• Supremacy

• Civilisation

• Settlement

• Strategic

reasons

• Nationalism

• Public

opinion

• Raw materials

• Market for goods

• Investment

Social

reasons

Political

reasons

Economic

reasons

Reasons for

European

colonisation of

Africa

Activity 2.3

1. As a class, brainstorm on the reasons that might make a person or a

group of people want to take control over others. Draw your reasons

from reasons for colonialism.

These European countries were driven by several factors to look for colonies

in Africa ranging from economic, political, social and strategic reasons.

Economic reasons

Economic reasons for colonisation of Africa were precipitated by the industrial

revolution. Most European countries had industrialised during this period.

The following were the economic reasons for the colonisation of Africa.

1. European countries were looking for cheap sources of raw materials

for their industries. They were looking for resources such as palm oil,

cotton and minerals.

2. They were also looking for a market for their finished products.

3. They were looking for avenues to invest their surplus capital which

they had accrued from trade and industrialisation. They believed that,

investment in Africa was cheaper than in Europe because there was stiff

competition in Europe.

Social reasons

1. Europeans colonised Africa because they felt they were a superior

race who needed to civilise Africans. Civilisation involved eradicating

practices such as slave trade and human sacrifices which were rampant

in the African continent making the Europeans regard it as a “dark

continent.” To them, colonisation was seen as a blessing to Africa.

2. They wanted to convert Africans into Christianity. This was done by the

Christian missionaries.

3. They colonised Africa to settle their population. especially those who

had been rendered unemployed by the industrial revolution and had

resorted to social crimes such as prostitution, theft and riots.

Political reasons

1. Politically, nationalism and patriotism was an important factor for

colonisation. Nations such as, France wanted to restore their lost glory

after being defeated by Germany in the Franco Prussian war of 1870.

2. Colonies were a symbol of supremacy. Powerful individuals such

as writer W.T Stead encouraged the building of empires. European

countries therefore colonised Africa because of public opinion. That

was the idea of the moment championed by many people.

3. Some European countries such as Britain colonised some African

countries for strategic reasons. They wanted to control the River Nile

and the Suez Canal so that they could easily transport their goods. The

Suez Canal shortened the distance between Africa and Europe by sea.

Colonial rule and administration

Activity 2.4

1. In pairs, draw a blank map of Africa.

2. Fill in the name of each colony in the appropriate place. Refer to the

map of colonialism.

3. Draw a table with different columns representing the European powers

that colonised Africa. In each write the African country that the European

power colonised.

Map of Africa showing different areas which were colonised by different

European countries

BELGIAN

BRITISH

FRENCH

GERMAN

ITALIAN

PORTUGUESE

SPANISH

Not colonised

ATLANTIC OCEAN

INDIAN OCEAN

ETHIOPIAN

EMPIRE

KEY

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN

SUDAN

Condominium

EQUATORIAL

AFRICA

NORTHERN

NIGERIA

SOUTHERN

NIGERIA

ERITREA

EGYPT

LIBYA

TUNISIA

ALGERIA

MOROCCO

RIO DE ORO

FRENCH WEST AFRICA

GUINEA (Spanish)

IFNI (Spain)

CAPE VERDE

(British)

SPANISH MOROCCO

MADIERA(Portuguese)

GOLD COAST

SIERRA LEONE

LIBERIA

ITALIAN

SOMALILAND

BRITISH

EAST AFRICA

UGANDA

GERMAN

EAST AFRICA

ZANZIBAR (British)

TOGOLAND

CABINDA

(Portuguese)

ANGOLA

SOUTH WEST

AFRICA

UNION OF

SOUTH AFRICA

BELCHUANALAND

SOUTHERN

RHODESIA

NORTHERN

RHODESIA

NYASALAND

MOZAMBIQUE

COMOROS

SEYCHELLES

BELGIAN CONGO

KAMERUN

MADAGASCAR

MAURITIUS

SWAZILAND

BASUTOLAND

BRITISH

SOMALILAND

FRENCH CONGO

FERNANDO

(Portuguese)

SAO TOME

GAMBIA

(British)

FRENCH SOMALILAND

GUINEA

(Portuguese)

During the Berlin conference of 1884-1885, Africa was shared among the

seven European countries of Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain,

Portugal and Italy. The Berlin conference was convened by the German

Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck. There were certain conditions set for any

European power that wanted to colonise Africa. These conditions were

known as the terms of the Berlin conference. They included:

a) That any state laying claim to any part of Africa must inform other

interested parties.

b) That all signatories must declare their “sphere of influence” which was

an area under each nation’s occupation.

c) That interested nations must effectively occupy their spheres of

influence and establish administration.

d) Countries must undertake to stamp out slave trade in the area they

occupy.

e) That River Congo and River Niger basins are to be left free for any

interested party to navigate.

f) Countries with protectorates in Africa should have authority or establish

administration to protect existing European rights and guarantee free

trade.

Sudan was administered by Britain and Egypt and was referred to as Anglo-

Egyptian Sudan. Up to 1914, Egypt was part of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey)

and expanded its control to Sudan in the 19th Century. The Turko-Egyptian

masters were interested in slaves, ivory, gold and timber found in South Sudan.

In 1881, the Mahdist revolt broke out and in 1882, Britain invaded Egypt. In

1899, they formally established a joint protectorate over Sudan, Egypt on

the basis of its previous claims and Britain by right of conquest. Between

1914 and 1922, Egypt and Sudan was part of the British protectorate. With

the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt and Sudan’s economic and

strategic importance increased. In 1882, Britain occupied Egypt and Sudan.

After the Mahdist revolt which was a rebellion against the British led by a

Sudanese religious leader Muhammad Bin Abdalla, the self-proclaimed

“Mahdi” (Guided one), the British pursued a divide and rule policy. From

1924, the British essentially divided Sudan into two separate territories, the

predominantly Christian south where the use of English was encouraged by

the missionaries and the Arabic North who were mainly Muslims.

Reasons why some countries in Africa were not colonised

There were only two African countries that were not overtaken and colonised

by the Europeans. These were Liberia and Ethiopia.

1. Liberia has never been colonised because it was created artificially. It

was a state formed in 1839 by white people of America to resettle the

liberated slaves. It therefore was under the United States of America

where it was ruled by the white minority until 1847. Liberia’s connections

to the United States made it unattractive as a target.

2. Ethiopia on the other hand successfully resisted Italian occupation

under its leader Menelik II. He led the Ethiopians to a decisive defeat of

the Italians in the battle of Adowa and secured Ethiopian sovereignty.

Types of colonial administration systems in Africa

Activity 2.5

1. In pairs, write down the role of prefects in your school.

2. In groups, research on the different types of colonial rule.

3. Write down your findings and present them in class.

After claims were made and borders drawn for African territories, European

nations had to come up with a plan of how to govern their newly acquired

colonies. There are several broad categories or divisions in which European

nations ruled African colonies. The commonly used systems were direct rule,

indirect rule and assimilation policy.

During the initial stages of colonisation, most European nations used

economic companies to rule the region. The European governments provided

these companies with characters who were

responsible for all expenses of establishing

and administering the colonies. This method

was mainly used by the British and the

Germans. The British East African Company

established in 1888 colonised Kenya on behalf

of the British and governed it until 1893. The

British South African Company was formed

in 1887 under Cecil Rhodes and colonised

Cecil Rhodes

Malawi (Nyasaland), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Southern Rhodesia

(Zimbabwe). It governed these colonies until 1923. The German East African

Company governed Tanganyika on behalf of the Germans. By around 1945,

there were no company ruled colonies remaining in Africa.

Reasons why the Europeans first used companies to rule

1. Company rule was used by European powers to minimise the costs of

occupation and put in place effective administration of the colonies as

per the clauses of the Berlin Conference.

2. European countries that used companies wanted the companies to

exploit resources in their colonies so as to be able to meet the costs of

administration.

3. They wanted the colonies to be self-sustaining and not to become a

burden to European tax payers.

4. The companies were expected to develop infrastructure in the areas

and also end the African resistance.

5. Company rule was used because the companies’ officials were already

working in Africa as traders.

Effects of company rule

(a) The companies were instrumental in ending local aggression in their

areas of operation. The chartered companies laid basis for colonial

administration by establishing administrative posts and centres.

(b) Chartered companies signed treaties with local leaders making it easier

for the European powers to acquire raw materials or minerals from the

colonies. For example, Lewanika of the Lozi signed the Lochner treaty

with the British South African Company in 1890 giving the company

mining rights in his kingdom.

areas of operation.

(d) The companies established industries for example; the British East

African Company established a rubber industry along the coast of East

Africa.

1. Direct rule

Direct rule was another form of colonial administration. This was a system of

administration where indigenous political and administrative institutions and

leaders were replaced with a European system. The British, French, Belgians,

Germans and Portuguese used this model. The European powers established

centralised administrations usually in urban centers and they did not involve

indigenous African rulers and governments. Direct rule used the strategy

of “divide and rule” by implementing policies that intentionally weakened

indigenous power networks and institutions.

This system worked well in places which already had large populations of

Europeans for example Zimbabwe. The Europeans also preferred using this

system in places that were viable in terms of minerals and raw materials.

African chiefs and headmen were stripped off their powers and their work

reduced to recruiting their subjects to forced labour and maintaining law and

order at local levels.

Reasons for direct rule

1. Direct rule was used so that the European powers would acquire full

control of the economy and exploit resources such as minerals and

farmlands.

2. This system was also used in places which lacked efficient traditional

systems of political administration or those whose systems had been

destroyed during wars of resistance.

3. This system was used where there were large populations of white

settlement for example in Zimbabwe. It was hoped that the system

would stop African resistance as Europeans were firmly in control.

Effects of direct rule

(a) It solved the shortage of employment among the European population

as they worked in the colonies.

(b) It undermined the pre- existing African traditional chiefs who were

replaced by colonial appointees. In Tanganyika for example, Germans

used Arabs, Akidas and Liwalis from the coastal areas as chiefs and

headmen instead of the local people.

enough white military forces.

(d) It led to massive exploitation of Africans through oppressive colonial

policies leading to land alienation, forced labour, taxation among others.

2. Indirect rule

This method was mainly used by the British. Indirect rule involved the use

of indigenous African rulers within colonial administration although they

maintained an inferior role. They worked under supervision of European

officials and received orders from them. Lord Fredrick Lugard, a British

colonial administrator, used this system of government in Nigeria and in

East Africa. This system was used in places where Africans had efficient or

“organised” political institutions under chiefs.

This system involved having Europeans occupy all senior positions. The

African chiefs retained their positions but their work was outlined and

curtailed. Their duties included settling disputes at local level, recruiting

Africans to forced labour, eliminating practices that the British could not

condone. In South Sudan the British ruled through tribal leaders whom they

gave “powers.” This use of “indirect rule” divided the South into hundreds

of informal chiefdoms. The British used “divide and rule” policy to separate

Southern Sudanese provinces from the rest of the country slowing down

their economic and social development. The British claimed that the south

was not “ready to open up” to the modern world. They therefore, invested

much in the Arab north. This created tensions and mistrust between North

and South Sudan culminating into armed conflict in the 1950s.

Reasons for indirect rule

The European powers that used this system lacked enough manpower to

handle administrative responsibilities in the colonies. This system was used

to minimise the costs of administering the colonies as traditional political

systems were used. Indirect rule was used to curb against African resistance.

This is because the traditional chiefs and leaders were used. However, most

of them operated as mere puppet chiefs.

Effects of indirect rule

(a) It created tribalism. Chiefs who were given the power regarded

themselves as superior to the others creating disunity. For example

in Uganda, Kabaka Edward wanted independence for the Buganda

kingdom only.

(b) It led to unbalanced development in the colonies as areas which had

chiefs developed in terms of social services like schools, hospitals

and road networks. This has been a cause of conflict between people

especially after independence.

and no longer worked for the interests of their fellow Africans.

(d) It created social divisions whereby, some tribes became the ruling class

while the others became suppliers of cheap labour.

(e) It led to the extensive exploitation of Africans in terms of human labour,

natural resources among others.

3. Assimilation policy

Assimilation policy was a system of administration mainly used by the French.

It stated that French laws apply to all colonies outside France regardless of the

distance from France, the size of the colony, the organisation of the society,

the economic development, race or religious beliefs. It was the expansion

of the French culture outside Europe. Assimilation was mainly practiced in

Senegal and in the four provinces or communes of Dakar, Goree, Saint Louis

and Rufisque. The Africans in these four communes of Senegal were easily

assimilated because most of them were literate, knew the French language,

were Christians and had long interactions European traders.

Assimilated Africans enjoyed privileges and rights that were given to any

French citizen in France. They could be elected as representatives in the

French lower House of Parliament. There was close economic relationship

between France and the colonies as both used the French currency.

Assimilated Africans had to:

1. Learn the French language.

2. Follow French laws.

3. Apply French civil and political systems.

4. Convert to Christianity.

5. Practice monogamy.

Reasons for assimilation

Assimilation was used in French colonies due to a number of reasons.

1. The existence of a large percentage of children of mixed parentage; the

“Mulatto” population who were easy to assimilate. This came about due

to long interactions and intermarriages between the local people and

European traders in these regions. the Africans in the four communes

of Senegal where assimilation was used were familiar with European

colonial administrators and missionaries. Lastly, most of the Africans in

this region had already converted to Christianity which was one of the

requirements for assimilation.

Effects of assimilation

1. This policy greatly undermined African culture as people were forced to

embrace the French culture.

2. It eroded the authority of the traditional African leaders who were

replaced by assimilated people.

3. Positively, the colony was regarded as

an overseas province of France and the

Africans were allowed to enjoy rights of

the French citizens such as participating

in political matters. A Senegalese Blaise

Diagne was elected in 1914.

4. The system created a great rift between the

assimilated Africans who were considered

French citizens and the rest. This is because

those assimilated were exempted from

taxation and forced labour.

4. Association policy

This policy prevailed in the French colonies after assimilation failed.

Association was a policy that respected African culture, allowing them to

develop independently and not force them to adopt French culture. Its

purpose was to create mutual economic development for both Africans and

the French. Africans had the right of maintaining their own culture.

Effects of association

(a) It did not interfere with African cultural practices such as religion,

custom and traditions.

(b) Association policy did not consider the assimilated Africans as French

citizens.

(d) It should be noted that even with the policy of assimilation and association

in French colonies, Africans were still subjected to oppressive laws and

economic exploitation such as land alienation, taxation, forced labour

among others.

Blaise Diagne

Effects of colonial rule in Africa

Activity 2.6

Hold a debate in class on, ‘did colonialism positively or negatively affect the

African continent.’

Negative effects

(a) The Africans lost their political independence.

(b) Some traditional political institutions were destroyed and replaced with

foreign ones.

culture. This led to loss of African culture.

(d) Many followers of the traditional religion were converted into

Christianity. They were made to believe that the traditional beliefs were

primitive.

(e) Africans lost large tracts of their land to European settlers.

(f) Many Africans were forced to live in crowded areas and were never able

to regain their land again.

(g) Africans were discriminated against and mistreated in their own

countries.

(h) Africans were viewed as slaves rather than free people. They were

forced to provide free labour on European settler farms or mines.

Africans working in European farms under supervision

(i) The African continent was broken up into political units that later

became independent countries.

(j) The Africans were forced to trade with the colonial master much more

than with fellow Africans living in neighbouring states.

(k) Development within the colonies was not balanced or uniform. It tended

to favour colonies occupied by white settlers.

Positive effects

1. New breads of animals and crops that could do well under the African

climate were introduced, mainly cash crops such as coffee, cocoa, tea,

sisal among others.

2. Colonisation introduced a common currency which had not existed in

the past.

3. Colonialism introduced new legal systems.

A court setting

3. It brought manufactured goods some of which could be manufactured

locally.

4. It introduced new machines which are

now used in agriculture and industry.

5. Colonial rule brought an end to slave

trade which was a very inhuman

practice that undermined the rights of

people and eroded their dignity.

6. Modern health facilities, formal

education and other social services

were introduced in to the country.

Students in a classroom

7. Colonial governments introduced modern methods of communication.

8. Many Africans learnt the language of their colonial masters like English,

French, German so on, which has given them advantage to be able to

communicate in the present globalised world without any difficulties.

Colonisation in South America

South America referred to as Latin America was colonised by Spain, Portugal

and France. Colonisation of South American countries started as early as the

15th Century due to exploration activities of the Portuguese and the people

of Spain. In 1492, a Spanish expedition by Christopher Columbus reached

the Americas. This intensified European exploration and colonisation of the

region. The final conquest of this area was sealed by the Treaty of Tordesillas,

which was ratified by the pope dividing most of the South American continent

between Spain and Portugal. Britain and France established colonies in some

of the Caribbean islands of West Indies, Bermudas among others in the 16th

Century after they failed in their attempt to dispute the Treaty of Tordesillas.

The motives for exploration and colonisation of Latin America can be

summarised simply as God, gold and glory. European Christians wanted to

dominate the “Holy Land” an area that extended from modern day Turkey

in the north along the Mediterranean coast to the Sinai Peninsula which was

under Islamic control. This inspired Atlantic colonisation leading to years

of violence and expulsion of Muslims. Gold colonisation was viewed as a

means of continuing religious conquest especially the strong catholic nations

of Spain and Portugal (Gold).

These European countries were also looking for trade routes to the lucrative

Asian markets. They wanted to access the wealthy Spice Islands (modern day

Indonesia) to acquire huge profits and eliminate Muslim middlemen .Gold

competition between the Portuguese and the Spaniards to colonise Latin

America quickly and aggressively was the desire to elevate their countries

and attain global dominance and recognition (Gold).

Comparison between colonisation in Africa and other

continents

Similarities

1. In both Africa and America, colonisers wanted to exploit natural

resources. The resources varied from country to country ranging from

minerals to agricultural products suitable for export to Europe. Profits

from the exports were sent to Europe instead of promoting social and

economic development in the colonies.

2. Colonialism in Africa and America saw the introduction of taxes to the

indigenous people for the maintenance of colony.

Differences

1. Colonisation of Africa not only involved acquisition of resources but

also the use of the people to provide free labour. The colonisers put

concerted effort to recruit cheap labour. Africans laboured in poor

working conditions for long hours with inadequate pay. In the end, the

Europeans left the African continent under developed. Colonisation in

America on the other hand involved Europeans relocating there with

their families, developing the area and influencing America with their

language and culture.

2. In Latin America, colonialism did not have much of an impact as the

original natives (the Mayas, Incans, and Aztecs) mostly died of war and

diseases or retreated into remote areas. It is the European population

or mixed European-Indian ancestry that remained. This hastened

development of the area, unlike in Africa which was left undeveloped

yet exploited. The effects of this are still felt many years later as Africa

lags behind in global development.

3. Colonisation period in America (Latin America) and Asia ended earlier

than that of Africa when these nations broke away from Spanish and

Portuguese rule.

4. In America and Asia, colonial powers created territories based

on economic considerations. There were large nations of diverse

populations such as India, Indonesia and Malaysia making it possible

for groups like Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs to co-exist in spite of bitter

experiences. In Africa however, colonial powers redrew boundaries

based on tribal divisions and pulled off one tribe against another. In

Rwanda for example, the Belgian colonial powers favoured the Tutsi

over the Hutu. This can be linked to the Rwandan genocide of 1994

where so many Tutsis were massacred.

5. The perception of the native people by the European colonisers also

varied. While Asia was seen as a backward nation, the Asians were

generally seen as intelligent and cultured people who could be civilised.

Africans on the other hand were viewed as barbaric, uncivilised people

who needed to be dealt with ruthlessly. The British for example,

introduced railways, parliamentary system of governance in India but

they did not do much of the same in Africa. When the Europeans left,

unlike other places such as Latin America and Asia, Africans did not

have institutions to build on.

Activity 2.7

1. Get your textbooks.

2. With the guidance from your teacher, read about African response to

colonialism.

3. In groups, discuss what you read on the African response to colonialism.

4. Write down your points and present them in class.

African response to colonial rule

African communities responded in different ways to European occupation.

The main methods of response were resistance and collaboration.

Resistance refers to the struggle conducted by the Africans against imposition

of colonial rule during their attempt to occupy the African land from 1880 to

1914.

Collaboration refers to cooperation of some African communities to European

colonisers mainly through signing of treaties.

There are those African societies or leaders who decided to fight Europeans

right from the start. These groups are known as Primary resistors for

example Samouri Toure of the Mandika, Menelik II of Ethiopia, Nandi

of Kenya and Kabarega of Bunyoro among others. The other groups are

those who welcomed Europeans and only decided to fight after realising

that Europeans had taken their wealth and independence. These are called

secondary resistors for example Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda and Lebengula

of the Ndebele. Some communities collaborated and cooperated with the

Europeans for example Buganda Ankole, Maasai among others.

Reasons for African collaboration

1. Africans collaborated because they thought this would protect their

independence. Africans valued self-rule. They trusted the Europeans

and did not expect the Europeans to betray them. Most of the African

leaders were illiterate and the treaties that they signed were interpreted

for them by the missionaries. They thought that the colonialists wanted

to promote trade between their countries and Europe. It is important

for modern day leaders to pursue education in order to make informed

decisions.

2. Other African leaders collaborated because they wanted to get weapons

and other forms of military support against their enemies. In Senegal

for example, African societies collaborated with the French because of

the threat from Samouri Toure of the Mandika Empire who wanted to

conquer their areas to expand his kingdom.

3. Some African leaders collaborated because of military weakness.

Europeans had superior weapons and well trained armies. They saw it

as futile fighting the Europeans and so they just gave in. In Kenya, among

the Maasai for example, a Scottish trader called Andrew Dick opened

fire killing 100 Maasai in what was called the “Kendong” massacre. This

incident scared the Maasai who realised that resisting the British would

be devastating. They saw that it was safer to welcome the intruders.

4. Natural calamities forced some Africans to collaborate. These

communities had been weakened by both human and animal diseasesand

epidemics leaving them too weak to resist the intruders. The Banyankore

(Uganda) for example were affected by jiggers and rinderpest. The

Maasai of Kenya were weakened by small pox, rinderpest and internal

conflicts. These African communities chose to collaborate to solve their

problems.

5. African leaders collaborated to acquire wealth for example clothes,

beads, guns, mirrors and wines. They wanted to get European goods

which they considered superior.

6. Some African leaders collaborated due to missionary influence.

Missionaries invited their countries to take over areas where they

worked. They convinced Africans to accept colonial rule through

Biblical Scripture such as all authority comes from God. They convinced

them to sign treaties for example Francois Coillard, a missionary wrote

a letter on behalf of King Lewanika of the Lozi in Zambia for British

protection.

Reasons for African resistance

Reasons for African resistance varied from community to community due to

the fact that African experiences under the colonialists were not the same.

These reasons were:

1. African communities resisted because they did not want to lose their

independence as some colonialists interfered with their traditional

political set ups.

2. Africans were against loss of their land which was alienated to make

way for European settlement.

3. Forced labour was a major grievance for the Africans. They detested

being forced to work on European farms and government projects.

Africans resisted due to imposition of high taxes. Besides, the taxes

were collected in a ruthless and demeaning way.

4. Africans resisted because of the harsh and ruthless way, they were

treated by the colonialists. They were viewed as slaves, tortured and

even flogged in public for offences like drinking local liquor which was

a common African traditional practice.

5. Some African communities resisted because of being militarily superior

at the time of colonisation. For example the French came at a time when

Samouri Toure’s empire was at the peak, enjoying military supremacy

and economic prosperity.

6. African leaders inspired their people to resist for example; Kinjikitile

Ngwale of Tanganyika promised his people immunity against European

bullets by using the magic water which was a mixture of water millet

and maize flour.

Reasons why African resistance failed

1. Africans had inferior weapons such as spears, bows and arrows while

Europeans had superior, sophisticated weapons like guns.

2. Poor communication systems in Africa made them unable to coordinate

their resistance activities. Europeans had disciplined and well trained

armies in terms of tactics, strategies, weapons and information systems.

3. Africans had poor armies, tactics and strategies.

4. Inability to control natural calamities such as drought famine among

others weakened the African fighters making them unable to wage stiff

resistance against the Europeans.

5. There was disunity among African communities. Communities did

not come together to fight against a common enemy. In fact some

communities aided the Europeans against their fellow Africans by

fighting for them as mercenaries (paid soldiers). For example, during the

Maji Maji uprising of 1905 to 1907 against the Germans in Tanganyika,

the Maasai, Baganda and Somali communities fought for the Germans

against their fellow Africans.

6. Unpopularity of some African leaders contributed to failure of

African resistance. Some African leaders such as Shaka of the Zulu

had autocratic behaviour and brutal systems towards their followers.

Africans therefore hated their leaders and did not participate in the wars

against imposition of colonial rule.

7. Africans had weak economic base making them unable to sustain

resistance for long due to lack of food. This was also coupled by the use

of the scorch earth policy by the colonialists which also destroyed crops

and livestock leading to starvation.

8. Some African communities relied so much on their beliefs, some which

were false. For example, during the Maji Maji uprising in Tanganyika,

Africans believed that the magic water made by their leader Kinjekitile

Ngwale would make them immune to European bullets. This made

them bold and courageous to attack the Europeans without arms and

as a result, a large number were killed.

African resistance though played a vital role in general and aimed at

retaining independence from external domination. Even though most African

resistance failed, Africans continued with their anti-colonial efforts by using

other methods. These efforts liberated African countries from colonial rule.

Keywords

Pre-colonial: The period before the coming of the colonialists.

Written sources: These are recorded sources of information like books.

Archeology: Thisisthescienticstudyofpeople’sculture

Linguistics: Thescienticstudyoflanguages.

Genetic: This is the study of hereditary variations.

Anthropology: The study of human societies and cultures.

Oral lore: This is the transmission of information from one

generation to the next through the word of mouth.

Trade: This is the exchange of goods and services.

Barter trade: This is the exchange of goods for other goods or

services and vice versa.

Currency trade: This is a form of trade that involves the use of money

as the medium of exchange.

Local trade: Trade carried out in a small demographic area.

Regional trade: This trade covers a large demographic area.

International trade: This trade is carried out across countries and continents.

Trans-Saharan: This is a form of trade that was conducted across the

Sahara desert.

Caravan: Agroupofpeopletravellingtogetheronatrade

expedition.

Sultan: AkingofaMuslimstate.

OmaniArabs: ArabnationalsfromOman.

End of Unit Exercise

1. Define the following words.

a) Colonisation b) Scramble and partition c) Assimilation

2. What was discussed in the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885?

3. Explain two social and three political reasons for the scramble and

partition of Africa.

4. Why did the British use indirect rule in administering South Sudan?

5. State the effects of indirect rule on the South Sudanese.

6. Name the four communes in Senegal where assimilation was used.

7. “Among all the three colonial administrative systems used by the

Europeans, assimilation was the best system.”

a) How far do you agree with this statement?

b) Explain your answer.

8. Name the two African countries which were not colonised.

Explain why the two countries were not colonised.

9. Africans responded differently to colonial rule. What do you think

influenced African response to colonial rule?

10. State five effects of colonial rule on Africans.

EARLY SOCIETIES IN

SOUTH SUDAN

Activity 3.1

1. In pairs define:

a) Centralised societies b) Decentralised societies

2. In groups research about the centralised and the decentralised societies

in South Sudan.

Present your finding in class.

South Sudan had various societies during the pre-colonial period. Some of the

societies in South Sudan were centralised while others were decentralised.

Characteristics of centralised societies

a) Centralised societies had one overall political leader who had a lot of

power like a king.

b) Centralised societies had a standing army which defended the

community during war.

Characteristics of decentralised societies

a) In decentralised communities, political power was not in the hands of

one person but a group of people like the council of elders.

b) Decentralised communities had warriors who defended the community.

There are many examples to give in South Sudan of centralised and

decentralised communities. The Shilluk, Azande and Anuar were centralised

communities while the Dinka and Nuer were desentrlised societies.

The Shilluk Kingdom (1490-1865)

The Shilluk are part of the group of Luo Nilotes. The Shilluk were a centralised

community. They are also known as the Chollo. Their kingdom was situated

on the banks of the White Nile. Its capital was at Fashoda. It was founded in

mid-15th Century by a man known as Nyikango or Nyikang. He is said to have

quarreled with some of his relatives and parted with them. He migrated to a

Unit

different location with his followers who are now the Shilluk. He was regarded

as a semi-god. The Shilluk kingdom was therefore a sacred monarchy.

Political organisation of the Shilluk

The Shilluk kingdom was a sacred monarchy ruled

over by a king whose title was Reth. The kingdom

was divided into two provinces; Gher and Luak. The

people lived in groups of villages known as Podho.

Each village had its own military and a military

leader. The position of the king was hereditary. The

king appointed chiefs to help him rule the kingdom.

Each king after Nyikango is believed to have

possessed his spirit. The selection and installation

of a Reth was an elaborate ceremony full of rituals.

Economic organisation

a) The Shilluk had good land for planting crops. They therefore practised

crop cultivation and kept few cattle. They planted millet and sorghum.

b) They were semi-nomadic cattle keepers as crop farming made them

live a more sedentary life to take care of the crops.

c) They raided their neighbours for cattle too.

d) They practised fishing in River Nile.

e) They hunted animals to supplement their meals.

f) They were also traders.

Social organisation

The family (gol) or Kalo was the smallest social unit. The father was the head

of the family.

The society was divided into social classes. The first was Kwa Reth. Reth

means king so these were the descendants of Nyakango. After the Kwa Reth

were the ororo. These were former members of the royal family who were

disinherited of their royalty. Next were the Chollo who were descendants

of non Shilluk people who settled in Shilluk territory. The last class was the

bang reth. This was a class owned by the king. They included his royal wives

and widows of dead kings. Others in this group were descendants of slaves

captured in raids.

The Shilluk were polygamous. Bride price was normally in form of livestock.

Shilluk king

Attacks from the Ottoman Empire and colonisation of Sudan by the British

led to the decline of the kingdom.

Today, the Shilluk still have their King but he is not an independent political

leader. He operates under the South Sudan constitution.

Activity 3.2

Is there anyone in class from the Shilluk community? Tell the class how a

Reth was chosen and finally installed.

The Azande Kingdom

The Azande people are found in present day Democratic Republic of Congo,

South Sudan and in the Central Africa Republic. The Azande kingdom was

created through military conquests and was ruled by two different dynasties;

the Banda dynasty and the Vungara dynasty. In South Sudan, they live in the

Central and Western equatorial states of Yei, Maridi, Yambio and Tambura

or Tumbura. The word Azande means people who possess much land. They

were fierce warriors who were able to acquire a lot of land through conquests.

Political organisation

They were ruled by kings. The kingdom

was made up of many tribal kingdoms

ruled by the Vungara dynasty. After a

kings death the sons would fight for the

seat. The losing sons would move and

establish kingdoms in neighbouring

areas. This made the Azande kingdom

spread far and wide especially eastwards

and northwards.

Each kingdom was divided into

provinces.

The king appointed chiefs to help him

rule.

The kingdom had a strong army which

was feared by many.

Azande warriors

Economic organisation

a) The Zande were iron workers. They made iron knives and swords.

b) They were also mixed farmers. They kept animals like cattle and grew

crops like millet and sorghum. They practised shifting cultivation.

c) They hunted animals to supplement their meal.

d) They traded with their neighbours.

e) They made pots and baskets to store food and water.

f) They made baskets from barks and palm leaves.

Social organisation

They lived in villages made up of related clans. Their houses were made of

mud. It is the men who built huts.

They believed in a supreme god called Mbori.

The society was divided into two. The Avungara who were related to their

great leader Gbudwe and his two sons Yambio and Tambura. Then there

were the commoners many who were not Zande but were captured in wars

of conquest and assimilated.

They had a strong belief in witchcraft. They believe that witchcraft was an

inherited substance located in the belly of a person. Many wore charms

to protect them from bad spirits. Chiefs used witchcraft on persons who

had committed crime especially big crimes like adultery and murder. The

witchcraft was able to determine who had committed a crime. Thieves were

punished by having their ears cut.

The Zande were polygamous. Bride price was in form of iron spears. Men

who could not afford the bride price could at times arrange to marry each

other’s sisters so they had no spears to pay. Kings at times gave spears to the

court pages to enable them marry.

The Zande circumcised their boys.

They also performed dances especially at night during full moons.

Activity 3.2

1. Draw a table like the one below in your notebook. Write the social,

political and economic similarities between the Shilluk and the Azande.

An example has been given.

Political similarities Social similarities Economic similarities

1. They were both headed

by a king.

Marriages were

polygamous in both

communities.

They all participated in

trade.

The Nuer

They live in the upper Nile valley. They are Nilotes. The Nuer people were a

decentralised society. They are believed to be related to the Dinka by blood.

Some people claim that in the past the descendants of the Nuer and Dinka

were children of the same father.

Political Organisation

(a) The largest political organ was the tribe. The tribes were subdivided by

lineage.

(b) Tribes made up a clan. Clans lived together in villages under a headman.

(d) When several clans faced danger they could come and stay together to

form a strong defence then separate after the threat was over.

(e) Disputes in the society were solved by the religious chiefs who were

known as kwar.

Economic organisation

1. They were nomadic pastoralists. Cattle were their dearest possessions.

A family’s prestige was equivalent to the number of cattle they owned.

Families live around communal cattle camps. They preferred being

named after their cattle. They dedicated their cattle to spirits.

2. They raided cattle from their neighbours especially the Dinka. To them

raiding the Dinka was normal and a duty. Every Nuer tribe raided the

Dinka.

3. Women performed rituals to bless men before raids and safe return.

4. They fished in the Nile River.

5. They cultivated millet and maize.

6. The Nuer were traders. They traded with the Dinka, Anyuak and the

Shilluk who were their neighbours.

Social organisation

1. They believed in a supreme god called Kwoth. They offered sacrifices

to him. They believed that God visited men through natural things like

rain or thunder, the moon or the sun. They believed the rainbow is the

necklace of God.

2. They had religious leaders like diviners and healers.

3. They believed in spirits. The spirits of the air were the most powerful.

4. Facial markings were done to initiate one into adulthood. The cuttings

are known as Gaar. The patterns differ according to the sub group. In

some it involved six cuts across the forehead.

5. They built circular houses with mud walls.

6. They had many ceremonial rituals.

7. Their marriages took place in stages. A marriage was not complete until

a woman bore at least two children. Then it was fully complete after she

bore the third child.

8. Their marriages were polygamous. They were also exogamous. A man

could not marry a woman of the same clan.

They also had ‘ghost’ marriages.

9. Barren women were allowed to “take a wife”

of their own. The children born from such

a marriage were hers though they had been

fathered by men.

10. They practiced circumcision of their males

though not all the time. They used to circumcise

at times as a ritual to cleanse someone who has

committed incest.

11. Members of a clan shared a totem.

Activity 3.3

Hold a class discussion with your teacher on ghost marriages among the

Nuer and how they worked.

Nuer man

The Dinka

They are the largest ethnic group in South Sudan. They also call themselves

the Jieng. They are River Lake Nilotes. They are among the tallest people in

the world.

Political organisation

They were a decentralised community organised in clans. They had leaders

from ruling families who ruled over the people. These leaders were ritual

chiefs who were believed to have healing powers. They were known as Beny

Bith or masters of the fishing.

Men who had undergone scarification became known as Parapuol and formed

the warriors of the community.

Economic organisation

1. The Dinka men made carved fishing hooks and spears.

2. Dinka women wove baskets and sleeping mats from papyrus.

3. They made pots and leather belts made from animal skin.

4. They were pastoralists. They kept large herds of cattle.

5. They were also traders.They traded with the Nuer in cattle, grain and

ivory.

Dinka tribe cows Dinka cattle byre

Social organisation

Young men were inducted into adulthood through markings on their forehead.

This is called scarification or tattooing. This was done from the ages of 10

to 16. Those who screamed or blinked during scarification were considered

weak.

After their scarification they named themselves after the colours of their

cattle.

They held traditional dances for various occasions

like like marriage.

They practiced wrestling which was a very popular

sport.

Polygamy was practiced especially among the rich.

Women were valued very much as sources of wealth

through bride price.

They built round mud huts.

They mostly walked naked especially the men.

Women dressed skimpily in small goat skin skirts.

The Western Dinka practised circumcision while

many eastern Dinka did not.

Activity 3.4

1. Draw a table like the one below in your notebook. Write the social,

political and economic similarities between the decentralised societies

we have discussed.

Political similarities Social similarities Economic similarities

2. Draw another table and in it, write the difference in social, political and

economic organisation of the decentralised and centralised societies

we have discussed.

Dinka girl adorned with

traditional jewellery

Keywords

Early societies: These are societies that existed before

modern time period dating below 18th

century.

Centralised societies: These are societies with a single rule with

all the powers.

Decentralised societies: Societies whose power is shared among

groups of people for example, council of

elders.

Kingdom: Acountry,territoryorstateruledbykingor

queen.

Polygamous: A type of marriage which allows man to

marry more than one wife.

Exogamous: Marryingoutsideone’stribeorclan.

Diviners: Specialists who confer or provoke spirits.

Have special powers.

Nomadic: Movement of domestic animals from one

place to another in search of pasture.

Pastoralists: People who keep animals as thier only

economic activity.

Rituals: Culturaloccasions withdi󰀨erentsignicant

meaning.

End of Unit Exercise

1. What factors led to the formation of centralised and decentralised

communities in South Sudan?

2. Why did many Kingdoms collapse in Sudan in the mid-19th Century?

3. Make a list of centralised and decentralised societies in South Sudan.

4. Why did the Nuer think that it was their duty to raid the Dinka?

5. Describe the political organisation of the Nuer in the pre-colonial

period.

6. Describe common social practices in the communities we have

studied.

7. How was scarification done among the Dinka?

THE TURKO-EGYPTIANS AND

MAHDISTS IN SOUTH SUDAN

The Turko-Egyptian Rule in South Sudan

By 1820,Egypt’s ruler Muhammad Ali, invaded Sudan with an army

that had cannons. He conquered the country and joined to Egypt. Thus

beginning the period of Turko-Egyptian Rule in Sudan, which lasted until

1885.

Muhammad founded the city of Khartoum and established a governor

there to rule the Sudanese.

Muhammad Ali extended the empire all the way to central Africa and

included almost whole of the Nile Valley.

This period of Egyptian rule in the entire Sudan region was called the

‘Turkiya’ because officially Egypt was part of the Turkish Empire.

Reasons for Turko-Egyptian entry into South Sudan

Activity 4.1

1. In groups, carry out a research on reasons of Turko-Egyptian entry into

Sudan.

2. Discuss your findings.

Region of modern time Sudan has a history linked with or influenced by Egypt

who is its immediate neighbours to the north. It also has strong identity as

the eastern end of the great trade route stretching along the open Savannah

south of the Sahara. It is important to note that Egypt was conquered by the

Ottoman Empire (Turkish Empire) in 1517 following the Ottoman-Mamluk

war of 1516 to 1517. Egypt was administered as a province of the Ottoman

Empire from 1517 until 1867 hence the name Turko-Egyptian. Egypt became

a semi-autonomous ottoman province until invasion by European countries

of France and later Britain.

Unit

Turko-Egyptian rule in Sudan was between 1820 and 1885. Muhammad Ali,

the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt annexed the country and his grandson Khedive

Ismail completed this process of annexation.

There are several reasons for the entry of the Turko-Egyptians into Sudan:

1. The main motive was to obtain black slaves for a new army.

2. He wanted to expand his territory. Muhammad Ali harboured ambitions

of finding an empire. This army of slaves would therefore be useful

for the expansion of his territory. Muhammad Ali was interested in

slaves whom he wanted to drain into a modern army. He collected as

many slaves as possible from South Sudan and sent them to Aswan for

training. Those who were unfit for military services were put to work in

his many agricultural and industrial projects. Between 1820 and 1821 for

example, it is estimated that about 30,000 Sudanese were conscripted

and sent to Egypt for training into the army. Many died though because

of diseases and unfamiliar climate.

3. Turko-Egyptian invasion of Sudan was also motivated by the need to

find new sources of revenue to finance his projects in Egypt. Muhammad

Ali craved for wealth and markets. He therefore invaded Sudan looking

for commodities of interest such as slaves, gold, ivory and timber. South

Sudan and her people became the main sources of these commodities.

Egyptian soldiers destroyed pyramids looking for gold, ivory and

slaves. Many Sudanese fled to escape slave traders. Later, traders and

missionaries flocked southward to exploit natural and human resources.

Commercial expeditions were sent to the south to look fir ivory.

4. Muhammad Ali wanted to crush the survivors of the Mamluk massacre

who had established themselves at Dangola. This dates back to the

time when he was appointed as the viceroy. He made his way up by

forming alliances with one set of potential opponents against others and

eliminating one group after the other in turn. His main obstacle was the

Mamlukes who were descendants of slave warriors from abroad. The

Mamlukes had two factions, one of which wanted to create a Mamluk

ruled Egypt, independent of the Ottoman Sultan in Constantinople.

Muhammad Ali invited about 5,000 Mamluke notables in the citadel

treating them to coffee and polite conversation. His soldiers opened fire

and murdered all of them. Muhammad Ali continued to hunt down and

kill Mamlukes in Cairo and elsewhere in Egypt totaling to about 3,000.

Many of them fled to the south and established a state at Dangola

(Dungulah) as a base for their slave trading.

The major aim for the establishment of Turko-Egyptian Rule in larger Sudan was to

obtain black slaves for the Turkish army in Egypt

Note!!!

Muhammad Ali

Turko-Egyptians administrative structures in South Sudan

Activity 4.2

1. In pairs of two, discuss Turko-Egyptian administration of Sudan.

2. Write down your points.

Turko-Egyptian rule in Sudan and South Sudan lasted for a period of about

60 years. The Sudan territories that initially consisted of kingdoms and tribal

territories were put under one centralised administration. A governor general

who was answerable to Cairo headed this centralised bureaucracy. During

this period, Sudan was ruled by Turkish speaking elites and those they

appointed. Top ranks in the army were meant for Turkish speaking Egyptians,

while the South Sudanese provided slaves Albanians, Greeks, Arabs and

others. Egyptian soldiers lived well and overtaxed the people. Muhammad

Ali won allegiance of some tribal and religious leaders by granting them tax

exemptions.

Egyptians divided Sudan into

provinces, which were sub-divided

into smaller administrative units

that were based on tribal territories.

Khartoum became the center

of Egyptian domain and served

as a residence of the Egyptian

deputy. Garrison towns became

administrative centers. At local

level, traditional chiefs assumed

administrative responsibility. These

changes increased tension that

already existed between the centre and periphery especially the south.

The seat of power moved to the central part, that is Khartoum. Slave trade

enhanced the position of these northerners yet slaves came from the south.

The Turko-Egyptians and North Sudanese collaborated against those of the

south and exploited them into slavery.

Reasons for the collapse of the Turko-Egyptian rule in South

Sudan by 1885

Activity 4.3

In groups, carry out a discussion on factors that can lead to the collapse

of a ruling regime.

Present your findings in class.

There were several reasons that contributed to the collapse of the Turko-

Egyptian rule in South Sudan. These reasons were:

1. Poor leadership

As the Egyptian rule became more secure, government became less harsh.

There was burdensome bureaucracy that was put in place that was expected

to make the country self-supporting. Muhammad Ali’s immediate successors

Abbas (1849 to 1854) and Said of 1854 to 1863 lacked leadership qualities

and paid little attention to Sudan.

City of Khartoum

2. Activities in the Ottoman Empire where slaves were mistreated.

Activities in the Ottoman Empire also contributed to the collapse of Turko-

Egyptian rule in Sudan. In 1865, the Ottoman Empire ceded the Red Sea coast

and its ports to Egypt. Ismail made the Europeans provincial governors and

appointed Sudanese to more important government positions. He attempted

to eliminate slave trade. He made attempts to build a new army based on the

European model instead of depending on slaves. This modernisation caused

a lot of unrest and contributed to the collapse of the Turko-Egyptian rule.

The army revolted (mutiny) and many Sudanese resented getting of troops

among the civilian population.

3. There was resentment of the use of Sudanese labour on public

projects. Efforts to suppress slave trade angered urban merchant class

who had grown prosperous by selling slaves.

4. The killing of an Ethiopian priest.

Another incident that weakened Turko-Egyptian rule in Sudan was the

killing of an Ethiopian priest in Sudan by Egyptian tax collectors in 1837.

This incident prompted the Ethiopians to send a large force of about 20,000

soldiers and defeated the Egyptians in Sudan.

5. Tension between traders and soldiers in the empire.

Egyptian rule in Sudan was undermined due to hostility and tension between

the traders and soldiers that arose due to commercial expeditions organised by

traders and missionaries to exploit natural and human resources in Southern

Sudan. This hostility and tension increased violent confrontation since the

traders viewed the southerners with contempt and a negative attitude. They

regarded them as racially inferior. The invaders resorted to acquiring ivory

by force leading to sequences of violence and conflict that undermined the

Turko-Egyptian rule. As sources of commodities such as ivory depleted, the

traders relied on intermediaries for example, the Bari who demanded higher

prices for fewer tasks. All this undermined efforts to establish beneficial

commercial relationship.

6. Failure to end slave trade by Turko-Egyptian rulers.

Attempts made by leaders such as Viceroy Muhammad Said, Khedive Ismail,

Sir Samuel Baker and others to suppress slave trade also undermined Turko-

Egyptian rule in South Sudan. The leaders imposed heavy taxes on traders’

employees in a bid to suppress the slave trade. Muhammad Ismail and Sir

Samuel Baker even sent expeditions to southern Sudan to extend Khedive’s

rule there and suppress the trade but the expeditions failed. These revolts

led to Sultan Abdal Hamud replacing Ismail. Gordon resigned as governor

general of Sudan and was succeeded by Muhammad Rauf Pasha.

7. The Mahdist Revolution.

The Mahdist war of 1881 to 1899 also led to the collapse of the Turko-

Egyptian rule in Sudan. This was a revolt led by the Sudanese religious leader,

Muhammad bin Abdullah who proclaimed himself the “Mahdi” or guided

one. The war which shall be described later on in this unit, led to the decline

of Turko-Egyptian rule in Sudan.

8. British invasion of Egypt in 1889 making Egypt their protectorate led

to the collapse of Turko-Egyptian rule. During this period, Khedive

Ismail had put Egypt into a huge debt due to his exorbitant spending

and corruption. This made his financing of the Suez Canal to crumble

forcing Britain to step in as the Suez Canal was of paramount strategic

importance to British imperial interests. Britain and Egypt therefore

occupied Sudan as Anglo Egyptian Sudan.

South Sudanese response to the Turko-Egyptian rule

People of South Sudan have been oppressed by different regimes that ruled

the Sudan. Turko-Egyptian occupation was promoted by expansionist

ambitions of the Ottoman Empire and it’s craving for wealth and markets.

The commodities were slaves, ivory, gold and timber found in South Sudan.

Turko-Egyptians and the North Sudanese collaborated in their raids against

South Sudan for slaves. Many South Sudanese were taken into slavery in the

Arab world and the new world. After consolidating their control over north

Sudan, Egyptian forces began to move south. The South Sudanese resisted

Turko-Egyptian invasion. Egyptian forces attempted to set up forts and

garrison in the region but disease and defection forced their abandonment.

This is because the Turko-Egyptians were not familiar with the climate. The

Khedives of Egypt had no real authority over the region.

Arab invaders who wanted to impose their culture and way of life on the

people frequently by passed villages in the South. Many local rulers despised

the Arab culture and encouraged the tribes to resist the invaders and protect

their African culture and way of life. The invaders were met with stiff

resistance.

Mahdist revolt (1881 to 1889)

Reasons for Mahdist revolution of 1881 to 1889 in Sudan

Activity 4.4

1. In pairs, discuss and write down:

a) Definition of the term revolution.

b) Differences between a revolution and a war.

2. Give reasons why you think it was necessary for South Sudanese to

resist Turko-Egyptian Rule.

Muhammad Ahmad bin Abdullah (the Mahdiya)

Mahdist war as earlier stated in this unit was a war which was fought between

the Mahdist Sudanese religious leader, Muhammad Ahmad bin Abdullah,

who was the proclaimed “Mahdi” of Islam (the guided one) and forces of

Khedive of Egypt initially and later the British. Muhammad Ahmad was

the son of a Dangola boat builder. He spent several years in seclusion and

gained reputation as a teacher. The Suez Canal was opened in Egypt in 1869

increasing immensely Egypt’s economic and strategic importance. Many

European imperialists became attracted to the region. During this time around

1879, Ismail Pasha’s government was replaced by his son Tewfik Pasha as

the ruler of Egypt. Ismail’s government had incurred huge external debts for

Egypt due to poor spending bureaucracy and corruption. He was unable to

sustain the construction of the Suez Canal and so Tewfik who ascended to

power at the hands of foreign powers replaced him. Tewfik yearned to get

British occupation to secure the monarchy.

Reasons for the Mahdist revolution included:

1. Resentment to the activities of Tewfik by the Sudanese and Egyptians.

They resented the ever-increasing influence of European governments

and merchants in the affairs of the country. Heavy presence of

Europeans in Egypt to protect Cairo, Alexandria and the Suez Canal

also limited British and Egyptian presence in Sudan. This led to the

Mahdi, Muhammad bin Abdullah declaring the revolt.

2. The Mahdi war broke out because Abdullah wanted to expel the British

and overthrow the monarchy, which he viewed, as secular and leaning

to the west. He wanted to replace it with a pure Islamic government.

This made him attract the support of many Sudanese people and even

Egyptians catching Tewfik and the British off guard.

3. Another reason for the Mahdi revolution was ethnic Sudanese anger

at the foreign Turkish Ottoman rulers. Muslims were annoyed with the

Turks lax religious standard and willingness to appoint non-Muslims

such as Charles Gordon to high positions.

4. Mahdi revolt occurred because, the people of Sudan and segments

of Egyptians were not happy with perceived corruption and

mismanagement that characterised Tewfik’s government.

5. The slave traders of South Sudan were also not happy with abolition

of slave trade, which was one of the main sources of income in Sudan

at the time. General Charles Gordon initiated an intensified anti slavery

campaigns. Attempts made by Egyptian and British leaders to suppress

this trade immensely contributed to the outbreak of the Mahdi revolt.

6. The Mahdi war was caused by the Turko-Egyptian rule in Sudan.

During the Turko-Egyptian rule in Sudan and South Sudan, segments

of the population suffered extreme hardship. There was heavy taxation

imposed on Sudanese people by the central government. Flat tax was

imposed on the farmers and small traders and collected by government

appointed tax collectors from Sha’igiyya tribe of northern Sudan.

Farmers were many times unable to pay this high tax during times

of drought and famine. Besides, the tax was collected with brutal and

unjust methods making many farmers to flee their villages in the fertile

Nile Valley to the remote areas of Kordofan and Darfur. Turko-Egyptian

rule saw this masters having absolute control over all Sudanese trade

and this destroyed livelihoods and indigenous practices. During forceful

military conscription of slaves to the Egyptian army, thousands of

Sudanese men and boys died on their long march from the Sudanese

hinterlands to Aswan, Egypt.

Reasons why the Mahdist revolution was successful

There are several reasons that contributed to the success of the Mahdi revolt.

These were:

• Many Arab tribes rose in support of the revolt as they considered it

a Jihad (religious war) against Turkish oppressors. Religion motivated

people to join the movement. Abdallah (Mahdi) legitimised the revolt by

drawing parallels to the life of the prophet Muhammad. For example,

he called his followers “Ansar” after the people who greeted Prophet

Muhammad in Madina. He also appointed commanders to represent

three of the four religious Caliphs. He announced that Abdullahi bin

Muhammad, his eventual successor, represented Abu Bakri Al Sidiq,

the prophet’s successor. He collected zakat (tax on wealth) instead of

the range of colonial taxes. He strove to impose Sharia prohibitions and

punishments.

• The Mahdi rebels had vast stores of arms and ammunition, military

clothing and other supplies captured from their battles. The Mahdi

waged several successful battles against the Egyptians. For example,

the Mahdi had a well-organised army compared to the Egyptian army.

In the summer of 1883, the Egyptian troops that encountered the rebels

were disorganised. The force was placed under the command of a retired

British Indian staff corps officer William Hicks and twelve European

officers. The force was in the words of Winston Churchill “perhaps the

worst army that has ever marched to war” as it was unpaid, untrained

and undisciplined.

• Internal problems in Egypt. Egypt was groaning under a huge debt. The

British under the control of a “Financial Advisor” placed the Egyptian

treasury crippled by corruption and bureaucracy. This office in a bid

to regulate Egypt’s financial affairs maintained that the garrisons in

Sudan were costing the Egyptian government unmaintainable expense.

It was therefore decided that Egyptian presence in the Sudan should be

withdrawn and the country left to some form of self-government likely

headed by the Mahdi.

Mahdist administration

The Mahdiya (Mahdist regime) imposed traditional Islamic laws (Sharia laws).

This, according to him, would promote religious unity unlike the old order

which was believed to promote tribalism. The Mahdi maintained that his

movement was not a religious order but a universal regime. To him, this was

a genuine Sudanese nationalist government. Initially, the Mahdiya (Mahdi

state) functioned as a Jihad state run like a military camp. After the death

of Muhammad Ahmad in 22nd June 1885 due to typhus, the state fell in

the hands of Khalifa Abdullahi. The Khalifa instituted an administration and

appointed “Ansar” (usually Baqqara) as emirs of the provinces he established

in his kingdom .He established the military and organised workshops

to manufacture ammunition and maintain steamboats. There existed a

department of finance on treasury which kept detailed records, taxed the

subjects and distributed wealth. The state minted its own coins for the local

economy.

At the top of the Mahdist administration was the Khalifa. He often delegated

his authority to his brother who commanded the largest division within the

Mahdi army, the Black Standard. The army (Black Standard) was divided

into four divisions led by a Chief Officer (Amir) who oversaw a number of

smaller units organised by tribal clan, ethnic or other affiliation. These units

were divided into groups of 100 which were further divided into groups of

25. At every level of command, authority was derived from pre existing

social hierarchies, tribal clans or family leaders. These leaders had several

functions including settling disputes, overseeing matters of public health and

sanitation, mobilising people for communal labour projects and explaining

directives of the Khalifa.

There existed courts administered by the Sharia law. The main court was

located at the mosque headed by a chief judge. A number of smaller courts

existed to listen to cases involving inheritance, taxation and slave ownership

among others. Much of the wealth of the Mahdist elite was dependant on

labour of their slaves. Most of these slaves were drawn from the non Arabic,

non Muslim people of the south identified by the Ansars as “Blacks.” South

Sudanese slave labour often taken by force formed the productive base of

society. Families of the elite Mahdist could possess up to 100 slaves. Slave

soldiers performed several functions such as guards and laborers at the

Khalifa house.

He used the Jihad to extend his version of Islam in the region. As stated earlier,

the initial Mahdiya state was run on military lines with courts enforcing the

Sharia law. Later, the Khalifa established a more traditional administration. He

continued his invasion of neighboring areas invading Ethiopia and defeating

them on March 1889 where the Ethiopian emperor Yohannes IV was killed.

These invasions strained his state economically coupled with crop failure. He

was also unable to overcome tribal leanings to unify Sudan in as much as he

was an able general and administrator. Many times he was forced to employ

Egyptians to provide the trained administration and technicians he needed

to maintain his self proclaimed Islamist military caliphate. His state was also

threatened by the Italian, French

and British imperial forces that

surrounded it. In September

1896, Khalifa Abdullahi lost

Dangola. In 1898, in the Battle

of Atbara River, his army was

defeated and he moved his new

capital of Omdurman, his army

was destroyed by the Anglo

Egyptian forces, forcing the

Khalifa to flee to the south. He

was finally caught and killed by

Sir Reginald Wingate.

Keywords

Annex: an extension of or an addition to a building.

Harboured: a part of a body of water along the shore deep enough for

anchoring a ship and so situated with respect to coastal

features, whether natural or articial, as to provide

protection from winds, waves, and currents.

Mamluks: is an Arabic designation for slaves. The term is most

commonly used to refer to Muslim slave soldiers and

Muslim rulers of slave origin.

Elites: the elite are a small group of powerful people that control

a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political

power or skill in a society.

Mahdist war of 1881

Bureaucracy: a system of government in which most of the important

decisions are taken by state o󰀩cials rather than by

elected representatives

Forts: isafortication,adefensivemilitaryconstruction.

Garrisons: Agroupoftroopsstationedinaparticularlocation.

Imperialists: People who support or practise imperialism.

Hinterlands: AGermanwordwhichmeanslandbehind.

Jihad Anarabicwordmeaningstrivingorstrugglingespecially

with praise worthy.

End of Unit Exercise

1. What was the nature of South Sudan before the Turko-Egyptian

entry?

2. What were the reasons for Turko-Egyptian entry into Sudan?

3. How did the Turko-Egyptians administer Sudan?

4. Why did the Turko-Egyptian rule collapse in the South Sudan by

1885?

5. What were the reasons for Mahdist revolution?

6. How was the Mahdist administration organised?

7. How did South Sudan respond to Turko-Egyptian and Mahdist

administration?

CONTRIBUTIONS OF REGIONAL

AND INTERNATIONAL BODIES IN

ACHIEVING INDEPENDENCE AND

DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA

Regional bodies are organisations formed by different countries in one

region to achieve certain group objectives. In Africa such bodies include

the East Africa Community, which operates in countries in the Eastern part

of Africa, The Economic Community of West African States that operates

in West Africa and the Common Market for Eastern and southern Africa.

These regional organisations operate under the blessings of the African

Union, which encourages their formation. Internationally the African

Union is also a regional organisation representing the African region or

the African continent. We do have regional organisations also in other

continents like Europe. An example is the European Union made up of

many nations in the continent of Europe.

International organisations operate in many different countries across the

continents. They include the International monetary fund and the World

Bank. We shall define them this way for this unit.

Activity 5.1

1. With the help of your teacher.

2. Outline the contributions of regional and international bodies in

achieving independence and development.

The following are aims and objectives of various regional and international

organisations;

The Organisation of African Unity (OAU)

This was an organisation formed by independent African countries in 1963.

It was later replaced by the African Union.

Unit

OAU conference in Addis Ababa

Objectives of the OAU

a) To provide African countries with a permanent organization through

which they could discuss issues affecting them and come up with ways

of solving them.

b) To provide identity for the newly independent countries of Africa in a

world dominated and controlled by the white race.

c) To eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa. (Decolonisation of

the rest of Africa.)

d) To improve the living standards and conditions of African people as a

group and as individual states.

e) To help maintain the sovereignty of African countries.

f) To promote cooperation among the African states in economic, social

and political fields so as to improve living standards.

g) To promote African unity.

The birthoftheOrganisationofAfricanUnity(OAU)morethan50yearsagoinAddis

Ababaemergedfromtheaspirationtowardsanidealofunityadvocatedbythefathers

of independence. From 22 to 25 May 1963, 30 African countries took part in the

conferenceintheEthiopiancapital,whichsetuptheOAU,whichmarkedthearrival

ofthe rst pan-African organisation.A charter dened its objectives, principles and

institutions.

Note!!!

The African Union (AU)

This was an organisation formed by African countries to replace the OAU

in 2002. It is the current organisation uniting and representing Africa in the

world.

Objectives of the African Union

1. To accelerate the political, social and economic integration of the

continent.

2. To promote and defend the African common positions on issues of

interest.

3. To defend the independence and territorial integrity of African states

and maintain the sovereignty of these countries.

4. To promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation

and good governance.

5. To harmonise policies of regional blocs.

6. To promote cooperation among the African states in economic, social

and political fields so as to improve living standards.

7. To achieve greater African unity.

8. To promote peace, security and stability in the continent through

peaceful settlement of disputes.

9. To help the continent develop by promoting research in all fields,

particularly in science and technology.

10. To encourage international cooperation, taking into account the Charter

of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

11. To work with relevant international partners in the eradication of

preventable diseases and promotion of good health on the continent.

African leaders attending an AU conference in Addis Ababa

The mainaimofchangingthenameofOrganisationofAfricanUniontoAfricanUnity

wasaboutachangeofperspectivethroughthedenitionofcommonpoliciesinpriority

areas:defense,peaceandcontinentalsecurity,integrationofAfricaneconomies,the

free trade policy.

Remember!!

Intergovernmental Authority and Development (IGAD)

This is an organisation of African

countries; Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia,

Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan Kenya and

Uganda. It was established in 1996. South

Sudan was admitted in the organisation in

2011. It succeeded the Intergovernmental

Authority on drought and development-

(IGADD)

Objectives of IGAD

• Promote joint development strategies among member states.

• Harmonise policies with regard to trade, customs, transport, agriculture

and natural resources.

• Create an enabling environment for foreign and cross border trade

• Achieve regional food security through combating drought and other

disasters

• To initiate programs for sustainable development of natural resources

and environmental protection.

• Develop a complementary infrastructure.

• Promote peace and sustainability in the region for example through

dialogue

• Promote co-operation in science and technology.

The Economic community of West African States (ECOWAS)

This is an organisation of West African States that was formed in 1975 with

the signing of the Lagos treaty.

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is made up

of fifteen member countries that are located in the Western African region.

These countries have both cultural and geopolitical ties and share common

economic interest.

IGAD logo

Objectives of Ecowas

a) To improve the living standards of the people in member states.

b) To achieve and maintain economic stability.

c) To improve relations between member states.

d) To promote cultural interaction among member states.

e) To promote industrial development among member states

f) To increase cooperation in specific fields like transport, agriculture and

trade.

g) To create a customs union in the region.

Map of West African Countries covered under ECOWAS

The New East Africa community

It was formed in 2001 to replace the old one that ceased to exist in 1977.

It was to revive the old unity that existed among states in the East African

region. The old community had three member states, Kenya, Uganda and

Tanzania. The new one has Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi and

South Sudan. It has a motto and anthem.

Its headquarters are in Arusha in Tanzania.

Six flags of member countries

Kenya

Rwanda

Sudan

Tanzania

Burundi

Uganda

Objectives of the new East Africa community

• To establish a customs union, a common market, a monetary union and

eventually a political federation.

• To enhance the role of women in social, economic and political

development.

• To encourage cooperation between the civil society and the private

sector to achieve development of member states.

• To promote peace and security among members.

• To develop policies which encourage cooperation of member states.

Presidents of EAC member countries here

The common market for Eastern and Southern Africa

(COMESA)

The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) is a free

trade area with nineteen member states stretching from Libya to Swaziland.

COMESA was formed in December 1994, replacing a Preferential Trade

Area, which had existed since 1981

The aims and objectives of COMESA

a) To ensure continuous growth of members by encouraging balanced

production and marketing.

b) To promote joint development in all fields of economic activity

c) To promote peace, security and stability of member states

d) To strengthen relations between COMESA and the rest of the world.

e) To create an environment which encourages cross border and domestic

investment

Activity 5.2

1. Discuss the goals and objectives of the East African Community

2. Compare these objectives of the other African organisations

The European Union

It is a political and economic union of 28 states mainly in Europe. It

developed an internal single market by standardising its laws to be followed

by all member states. They developed a monetary union where they use their

currency known as the Euro.

Member states include Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, France, Germany, Poland,

and Spain among others. Britain is in the process of withdrawing from the

union.

Their motto is United in Diversity.

Its headquarters is in Brussels, Belgium.

Flags of EU member states

Objectives of the European Union

To promote economic and social progress of member states.

To assert the identity of the union on the international scene for example

through aid to non-member countries, having common foreign and security

policy and action in the international crises.

To introduce European citizenship to complement national citizenship to

citizens from member countries.

Important!

The European Union’s main objective is to promote peace, follow the EU’s

values and improve the wellbeing of nations.

Activity 5.3

1. Apart from the East Africa Community, list down at least ten member

states of all the African organisations we have studied above.

2. Do you know the words of the East African community anthem?

Sing it in class.

The International monetary Fund (IMF)

It was formed in 1945. Almost all countries of the world are members of IMF.

Its objectives

a) To promote international monetary cooperation.

b) To promote the growth of international trade.

c) To promote stable exchange of money.

Activity 5.4

1. Research and list down other objectives of the IMF.

2. What do the IMF and the World Bank do?

3. Write down the answers in your note books.

How regional and international organisations helped in the gaining of

independence in Africa.

One international organisation that we have not discussed above is the

United Nations which was formed in 1945. It together with the organisation

of African Unity played a great role in the freeing of African nations from

colonisation.

The United Nations in its charter on human rights included the right to self-

determination. This means that all people have a right to decide their destiny

for themselves and not other people deciding for them. Colonised people had

the right to be set free so that they rule themselves. The UN also set up the

trusteeship system and the trusteeship council. This council was to organise

the administration of territories that were not independent. Any country that

took over the administration of such a territory was to set up systems that

would slowly lead it to self- independence.

In 1960 the General Assembly of the UN adopted the Declaration of granting

independence to colonial countries and peoples. In it, it insisted that all people

have the right to self-determination and colonialism should end quickly. All

of its member countries, some which had colonies, were to obey this. In 1962

it adopted the special committee on decolonization to monitor if people

were doing what it asked them to do in the previous declaration. Through

this special unit it condemned colonisation and removed Africa from the

claws of colonialism. When South Africa wanted to annex Namibia it saved

it from annexation. When the white extremists in Southern Rhodesia did

not want to give independence to the Africans there, the UN put sanctions

on the government of Ian Smith to force it to give them independence. It

consistently condemned apartheid in South Africa.

The OAU on the other hand had a special committee as part of its structure

dedicated to free Africans from colonialism. It was called the liberation

committee. Its full title was the Coordinating committee for the liberation

movements in Africa. It had its headquarters in Dar-es-Salaam.

Activity 5.5

Get into groups. Using examples of countries, describe how the liberation

committee of the OAU helped African nations get independence. Each

group should choose one particular region of Africa to research on.

Present the answers in the class. Make a summary of the roles in your

notebook.

How regional international organisations help in

developing Africa

1. The OAU helped in solving disputes between countries like Kenya and

Somalia over their boundary, Ethiopia and Somalia over the Ogaden

region, Chad and Libya too. The disputes were solved by the OAU’s

mediation commission. IGAD and the AU have been involved in peace

keeping missions in the horn of Africa and other areas of Africa. This

helped promote peace which is a key foundation to development.

2. The OAU and other regional organisations have banks where nations

get loans to develop their countries. An example of this is the African

development bank, The African central bank, the African monetary

fund and the African investment bank.

3. The United Nations organisation through the World Bank and the

international monetary fund have helped balance trade between nations

in Africa and stabilise their currencies. They too have given loans and

grants to counties in Africa to build infrastructure, pay debts and so on.

4. The East Africa community and ECOWAS have pooled resources

together to build roads and railways.

5. Organisations like COMESA and EAC have promoted trade in Africa

between member countries through reduction of tariffs. Nigeria in

ECOWAS for example supplies oil to members at a cheaper price.

6. The African union through its peer review mechanism has promoted

good governance in Africa through positive competition of countries.

Those that promote democracy and gender equality are awarded. The

AU and the UN also send observer missions to African countries to

observe elections to help ensure free and fair elections.

7. ECOWAS has allowed free movement of members in each other’s

countries. It has reduced restrictions on VISA requirements. This has

allowed a lot of cross border investments.

8. The EU and African countries co-operate in many ways. It has entered

agreements with many African countries like the Cotonou agreement

and the joint Africa-EU strategy of 2007. The EU adopted three special

strategies for three areas in Africa –the horn of Africa, the Gulf of

Guinea and the Sahel region. In the horn of Africa it helps countries fight

insecurity especially terrorism, drought, famine and flooding. It gives

food aid here and teaches communities on how to develop sustainable

economies. In the Sahel region and the Gulf of Guinea it is involved in

promoting security too. It fights human trafficking in the Sahel region.

In 2017, the EU committed to provide 50 million Euros to support the

newly established G5 Sahel joint force to improve security in the region.

In other parts of Africa it has had several military and civilian missions as

part of its common security and defence policy. EU missions are deployed in

the Central Africa Republic, Libya, Mali and Somalia today. Here they prevent

civilian deaths and help them go on with their economic and social activities

thus promoting development.

Through economic partnerships with African states the EU promotes trade

between it and Africa by allowing imports and exports from partner countries.

The European development fund is used to fund a lot of projects in Africa.

Note that when a country develops, it does so socially, economically and

politically.

9. The United Nations has helped resettle refugees. It provides food to

them, security and education. The education helps them get employment

even in the host countries.

Activity 5.6

Visit your school library and read on the following

The Lomé convention of 1975.

The Cotonou agreement of 2000 (section affecting Africa) and see how

other nations have helped Africa develop itself.

Write down your points.

Challenges that regional and international organisations face

when addressing African affairs

Shortage of funds

Many African regional organisations face this problem as some members fail

to remit their contributions. This makes it hard to finance their projects.

Personal conflicts among leaders

Some leaders of certain countries do not see eye to eye due to various

reasons. Some miss crucial meetings because their enemy is attending.

Countries going against agreed agreements. The EAC member states for

example have accused one another of doing this especially Kenya and

Tanzania. This creates hatred.

Some countries go against the spirit of good neighborliness. One aim of the

EAC is to promote good neighborliness. Kenyan fishermen are periodically

detained in Uganda accused of fishing in Ugandan waters of Migingo Island.

In 2017 the Tanzanian government detained livestock of Kenyan pastoralists

who had crossed the border in search of pasture during the dry season.

Kenya sent several delegations to plead with the Tanzanian government in

vain. Such actions create hostility in the organisation.

Some international organisations that are in Africa involved in teaching

Africans on how to develop viable economies in some areas get frustrated as

some communities refuse to change. Some other communities need constant

supervision to continue doing what they were told yet it is for their own

benefit.

Some members are involved in creating instability in other member nations.

Civil wars have undermined

the progress made in some

countries like in Sudan, South

Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia.

Agriculture is disrupted, roads

destroyed and people killed. A lot

of money is spent on weapons

and reconstruction after war

instead of development.

Activity 5.7

Get in groups and discuss the following.

1. How are the above challenges being solved?

2. List down the achievements of the organisations we have studied

above and failures that the above organisations have registered.

Each group to handle one organisation.

3. Present your answers in class

Keywords

Charter: Awrittengrantbyalegitimatepowersuchasa

company, university or country.

Decolonisation: Granting a state or country independence.

Diversity: Arangeofdi󰀨erentthings.

Federation: Agroupofstateswithacentralgovernmentwith

independenceininternala󰀨airs.

Geopolitical: Relating to politics especially in international relations,

asinuencedbygeographicalfactors.

Pan-African: RelatingtooldpeopleofAfricandescentorbirth.

Sovereignity: Thepowerofacountrytocontrolit’sgovernment.

Civil war: Its a war of people or citizens of a state against

themselves.

IDPs in South Sudan

End of Unit Exercise

1. The organisation of Africa Unity was unable to handle many regional

conflicts some that resulted into wars. What were some reasons for

this inability?

2. List down five ways in which the AU has promoted development in

Africa.

3. In what ways does peace promote development?

4. What have been the failures of the African Union?

5. What challenges does ECOWAS face in meeting its objective?

6. What is the biggest political challenge facing African nations?

SLAVES AND OTHER ITEMS

OF TRADE

Introduction to colonial rule

Introduction

Trade is defined as the buying and selling of goods and services.

Slave trade is the process of procuring, transporting and selling of human

beings as slaves. South Sudan was from ancient times, involved in trading

activities.

Apart from the local trade that existed among the South Sudanese

communities to acquire commodities that they needed, this area was

also involved extensively in regional and international trade particularly

in slaves and other commodities. Slavery in the region of South Sudan

has a long history beginning in the ancient Nubian and ancient Egyptian

times and continuing up to the present. Prisoners of war were a regular

occurrence in Africa. During conquests and after winning battles, Nubians

took Egyptians slaves. Egyptians also took slaves after winning battles

with the Libyans, Canaanites and Nubians.

Activity 6.1

1. With the help of your teacher.

2. In groups, discuss the items of trade in south Sudan.

3. Let your group leaders present your findings in turns.

Slave trade in South Sudan

Activity 6.2

Recite the poem below.

Slave trade

Slave trade, slave trade

You make people to sell fellow human beings, causing hatred among

people

Unit

You are responsible for the forceful migration of people, leading to

displacement of people

You lead to decrease of population in some regions, thus reduce sources

of labour

Slave trade, let’s stop slave trade.

Slave trade, slave trade

You cause warfare among African communities, causing division among

Africans

You cause civil unrest and insecurity in villages raided, making people

to live in fear

You lead to loss of lives and displacement of Africans, separating us from

our loved ones

Slave trade, let’s stop slave trade.

Activity 6.3

1. In groups, discuss how you will feel when you are separated from your

loved ones.

2. Present your views in class.

Origin and development of slave trade in South Sudan

Arabs conquered Egypt and attempted to conquer the kingdoms of

Christian Nubian (Sudan) on several occasions without success. Given their

unsuccessful efforts, the Arabs signed the 600 year “treaty of bagt” in 652 AD

with the Christian Nubian kingdom of Makuria. Nubians who were already

involved in the East African slave trade agreed to trade 360 slaves annually to

their northern neighbors in exchange for spices and grains. Nubians kingdom

fell in 1504. The Ottoman conquered most of Nubia (Sudan) while the Funj

conquered much of modern day Sudan from Khartoum to Darfur. The Funj

began to use slaves in the army during the reign of Badi (1692 to 1711).

Egyptian slavers began raiding modern South Sudan. Muhammad Ali of

Egypt attempted to build up an army of southern Sudanese slaves with the

aid of the Nubian slavers.

During the Trans-Saharan, the main item of trade from North Africa (Sudan

region) was salt which was the main trade commodity needed in Sudan. This

is because people living near the Sea could only obtain salt. Other items of

trade from North Africa were cloths, beads and metal goods. On the other

hand, the item of trade from West Africa to North Africa was gold. There

was a high demand of gold in North Africa and this was available in West

Africa. Other items were slaves and ivory. Slaves were acquired from African

communities in the South Sudan region and not the Arabs of North Sudan.

Slave rids became a common occurrence in this region. There were slave

dealers or traders who organised and captured slaves from the interior of

Sudan.

Samuel Baker, a British explorer visited Khartoum in 1862 said that “slave trade

was the industry that kept Khartoum going as a bustling town.” He described

the practice of slave raiding of African villages to the South by slavers in

Khartoum: “An armed group would sail up the Nile, find a convenient African

village, surround it during the night and attack just before dawn, burning huts

and shooting.” Women and young adults would be captured and bound with

“forked poles on their shoulders”, hands tied to the pole in front, children

bound to their mothers. The motive according to him was “to render the

village so poor that surviving inhabitants would be forced to collaborate with

slavers on their next excursion against neighboring villages.” The villages

would be looted of cattle, grain and ivory and totally destroyed. According to

the historian Douglas H Johnson, two thirds of Khartoum’s population was

slaves. The Arab African slave trade continued and still continues because

according to Muslims, slavery is clearly sanctioned in the Koran (Holy book

of Muslims). The Koran condones slavery especially of non believers.

The Arab-African slave trade

Trade routes

Activity 6.4

1. Find out from your teacher the trade routes used in south Sudan.

2. List them down.

North Africa was central to the entire trade of the Mediterranean region.

Nubia in Sudan likewise traded with interior African countries such as, Chad,

Libya and the Arabian Peninsula. On the east coast of the continent, the

Swahili traders linked the region to the Indian Ocean trading network bringing

imports from China, India and far East countries. These imports included

utensils, cloths, porcelain plates in exchange for gold, ivory and slaves in

the interior of African continent, trade was limited due to low population

densities. Between 1000 and 1500, the forests of West Africa became part of

the trading network. The trade routes involved towns such as, Ife to Djenne, a

major trading centre in Sudan near other large trade cities such as Timbuktu

and Gao.

By 1000 AD, the Bantu language speaking people of Zimbabwe and southern

Africa developed extensive overseas trade with lands as far away as China

and India. They domesticated beef, iron, ivory and gold in exchange for

porcelain beads, Persian and Arab pots. Trade in the forest kingdoms was

mostly done at local levels in markets. Cloth, vegetables, meat and other

items were traded and paid for using seashells called collieries which were

imported from East Africa. Copper and iron bars were also used as currency.

Trade with the Middle East that had began quite early with the ancient Egypt.

The spread of Islam brought traders into the interior of Africa. This laid down

the framework of long distance trade across political and cultural boundaries.

The Trans-Atlantic slave trade

Activity 6.5

1. Research on the organisation of Trans-Atlantic slave trade using the

following questions.

a) How were slaves acquired from the interior of Africa?

b) What items were exchanged for slaves?

c) What were the experiences of slaves as they were being transported

across the Atlantic (the middle passage)?

2. In groups, discuss your findings.

3. Group leaders to present your findings in class.

Triangle formed between Africa, America and Europe in the Trans-Atlantic trade

Origin and development

The Trans-Atlantic slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of

enslaved African people from Africa to the Americas and their sale there. The

trade existed from the 16th to the 19th Centuries. The slave trade used mainly

the triangular route as slaves were taken from Africa to the Americas and

worked on large plantations. Their labour yielded raw materials, which were

taken to Europe to be processed into finished products. Europe, especially

Britain, had undergone the industrial revolution and had industries. The

finished products were brought back to Africa to be sold as cheap imports.

The trade therefore involved three continents of Africa, America and Europe

forming a triangle hence the term a “triangular trade.” The Portuguese were

the first European country to engage in this trade followed by other European

countries including the British, the French, the Spanish and the Dutch empires.

The Trans-Atlantic slave trade was as a result of labour shortage created by

the desire of European colonialists to exploit New World Land (America) and

its resources for capital profits. The native inhabitants of America mainly

the Red Indians were utilised at first as slave labour but a large number died

from overwork and diseases. Europeans looked for alternative source of

labour. Africans were preferred because they were perceived to be physically

strong, immune to diseases and available in large numbers. Ship owners

regarded slaves as cargo to be transported to America as cheaply and quickly

as possible. Slaves were sold to work on coffee, tobacco, cocoa, sugar and

cotton plantations. Slaves also worked in gold and silver mines, rice fields,

construction industry, and cutting timber for ships and as domestic servants.

During the 17th Century, slavery hardened with slaves and their offspring

being legally the property of their owners and children born to slave mothers

were also slaves. As property, people were considered as merchandise and

sold at markets with other goods and services.

Organisation

Although Europeans were the market for slaves, they rarely entered the

interior of Africa due to fear of disease and fierce African resistance. Africans

played a role in the slave trade. African leaders and slave traders organised

raids to acquire slaves. Prisoners of war were sold as slaves to European

buyers. Some African slave traders kidnapped lonely travelers, women and

children and sold them as slaves. Some African leaders sold their subjects to

slavery. Criminals and other wrong doers in society were sold as slaves.

The slave traders enticed children with sweets and gifts and sold them as

slaves. After being acquired the slaves were yoked with wooden yokes and

marched to the coastal towns to await shipment. On arrival to the coast,

slaves were sold using batter trade method to the European merchant.

Pieces of cloths, wine, copper bars, brass pans and firearms among other

items. Strong African men and women were sold too. There existed large

warehouses at coastal ports of Goree, Elmina among others where slaves

were kept sometimes for months awaiting shipment to the Americas. Once

the ships arrived, slaves were tightly packed in the ships, usually lying on their

sides to create space for the ships to carry as many slaves as possible. They

were tied to the ships with chains to deter them from escaping. The journey

of the slaves from Africa to America across the Atlantic was referred to as

the “middle passage” and was one of the most traumatising experiences. The

slaves travelled in extremely miserable conditions with inadequate food and

water and poor lighting in the ships. There were poor sanitation facilities and

many slaves who left Africa died of diseases. Besides, many African slaves

jumped in the ocean preferring to be eaten by sharks. There was a high death

rate during the “middle passage.”

Trans Atlantic Slave Trade

It is important to note from the descriptions of slave trade in Sudan and the rest of

Africa that the practice of slave trade greatly exploited the African continent. The

African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes across

the Sahara through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the

Atlantic. There were at least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim

countries (from the 9th to the 19th Centuries), four million people enslaved and

exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the

Indian Ocean, approximately nine million along the trans Saharan caravan route

and more than twelve million across the Atlantic Ocean.

Note!!!

African slaves tied with the supervision of a European trade merchant

Effects of Trans-Atlantic trade on Africa

Activity 6.6

1. With the guidance of your teacher, divide into three groups.

2. Each group to carry out a research.

3. Discuss the following effects of Trans-Atlantic trade.

a) Economic effects.

b) Social effects.

c) Political effects.

4. Group leaders to present their findings in class.

The effects of Trans-Atlantic trade on Africa were:

• Trans-Atlantic slave trade greatly impaired Africa’s potential to develop

economically and maintain the social and political stability.

• Africans were immensely exploited in terms of human resources,

labour and commodities. Socially, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade led to

decrease in population in the West African region. It is estimated that

this trade was responsible for forceful migration of between 12 to 15

million people from Africa. The majority of people who were enslaved

were men.

• This trade led to increased warfare among African communities due to

slave raids.

• There was a lot of civil unrest and insecurity as villages raided each

other for slaves so that they could capture them and sell them to keep

up with the European demand.

• Slave trade led to the growth of some powerful and wealthy states such

as Asante and Dahomey. This is because their leaders were greatly

involved in the control of the slave trade. Some African communities

for example, South Sudan were on the other hand weakened because of

war and destruction experienced with the slave raids.

• The Trans-Atlantic slave trade greatly undermined the economy of

African communities. This is because Africa was losing its most valuable

resources which are the working class or labour force. Besides, the

constant wars and conflicts did not create a conducive environment for

people to engage in any other economic activity.

• The Trans- Atlantic trade created a lot of mistrust and suspicion among

African communities. The practice of raiding other African communities

led to hostility among African states. Established code of conduct

(concerning warfare) that was meant to create peace was destroyed

leading to high levels of insecurity.

• These activities created hatred between African states. African states

were therefore considerably weakened, not only because of the wars

and conflicts, but also because of the deportation of their much

strong labour force. It is worth noting that these factors contributed to

colonisation of the African continent by European imperialists as they

found African states weak and disunited.

• The Trans- Atlantic slave trade led to loss of lives and displacement

of many African communities. Many people fled their homes in fear

of being captured as slaves. This affected and greatly hampered the

growth of economic activities such as agriculture and industry.

• The Trans- Atlantic slave trade led to destruction of property following

numerous raiding, conflicts and displacements.

• The Trans -Atlantic slave trade interfered with the social fabric of the

African communities. Most who were taken away were men leaving

women to head families and undertake economic activities to maintain

homestead. African chiefs and leaders who initially were custodians of

their people changed and became the ones to capture them into slavery.

• Most African states were politically destabilised, economically

weakened and socially fragmented. The trade left the African continent

disorganised, underdeveloped and susceptible to colonialism.

Effects of the Trans- Atlantic slave trade on America

Activity 6.6

1. In groups, state the effects of trans-Atlantic slave trade in south Sudan.

2. The group leader to present your work in class.

• The Trans- Atlantic slave trade led to the importation and subsequent

enslavement of Africans in America. This led to the settlement of

Africans in America.

• Long term exploitation of the black slaves produced deep social divides

between the rich white and poor black communities, consequences

which still haunt America today.

• The trade also laid the foundation for modern capitalism as using African

slave labour; immense wealth was generated for business enterprises in

America and Europe.

• Slave trade also expanded agricultural production in America.

• The Trans- Atlantic slave trade led to the introduction of elements of

African culture in America such as African juju, samba dance style and

jazz music among others.

Effects of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade on Europe

• The trade was of more benefits to the European nations as it greatly

boosted their economic growth. This is because their industries thrived

on cheap raw materials from America generated by free African slave

labour.

• They also had cheap markets in Africa to sell their finished products.

• The Trans-Atlantic slave trade led to the rise of rich and wealthy

European merchants for example the Barclay brothers.

It is worth noting that the Trans-Atlantic slave trade had extremely negative

effects on the African continent. The other continents of America and Europe

seem to have benefitted more from the trade.

Note!!!

Abolition of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade

Activity 6.7

How effective do you think the abolition of trade was?

Was it good or bad?

Efforts towards the abolition of the Trans- Atlantic slave trade came about

due to several factors. Abolitionists for example, William Wilberforce (1759

to 1833) led the British parliamentary campaign to abolish the slave trade

and slavery .He termed the trade inhuman and undermining human dignity.

Christians termed the trade unchristian and unethical. Other abolitionists

included economists such as Adam Smith who argued that free labour was

more productive than slave labour. The gaining of independence by the

United States of America in 1776 also led to

the abolition of slave trade as it closed slave

markets. Abolition of slave trade was hastened

by ideas of the French Revolution of 1789.

The French Revolution brought ideas of liberty

(free), equality and fraternity (brotherhood) that

this trade negated.

End of Trans-Atlantic trade began in the 19th

Century with ban on importation of slaves in

Britain and the America in 1807. There was

international pressure during the abolition of

William Wilberforce

this illegal trade even though it continued for a further 60 years. From 1815 to

1865, the British royal navy undertook antislavery patrols of the West African

coast seizing hundreds of vessels. Britain was forced to pay compensation

for seized ships and to encourage countries such as Spain and Portugal to

abolish slavery. The Trans-Atlantic slave trade was finally abolished in the

1860’s when most European countries put a ban on the trade.

Abolition of slave trade in Sudan

Activity 6.8

1. Was the abolition of slave trade in south Sudan successful?

2. State the effects of the slave trade abolition in south Sudan?

Abolition of slave trade began with British effort in the 19th Century.

During the mid-19th Century, the British royal Navy was active in the Indian

Ocean including the Red Sea where there existed Sudanese ports. Egyptian

government cooperated with the British and introduced new commercial and

criminal laws administered in secular courts. This reduced the prestige of

Islamic judges who presided over Sharia Courts that approved slavery.

The British imposed upon the Egyptian government that was extending its

rule to Sudan to close down the slave trade. Ismail Pasha (1863 to 1879)

signed the Anglo- Egyptian slave trade convention in 1877. In this treaty,

the Egyptian government committed to stop the sale and purchase of slaves

in the Sudan by 1880. General Charles Gordon, the British governor in

Sudan began to enforce the terms of this treaty. He carried out campaigns

to break up markets and arrest slave traders. His subordinates pursued the

same action in the provinces. Muslim opposed this move proclaiming that

English Christians were violating clear teachings of Islam as outlined in the

Koran. Gordon’s anti-slavery campaigns led to the Mahdist uprising. After

defeating the Mahdists in the 20th Century, the British proceeded to sharply

reduce the slave trade though with a lot of Arab Sudanese resistance. Slavery

was officially abolished in 1924. The practice however continued long after

independence in 1956 and it was a major factor in the Sudanese civil wars.

The Arab enslavement of the Dinka people in the Southern Sudan is one

of the most brutal and well-documented examples of the late 20th Century

slavery.

Modern day slavery

Slavery in the 21st Century

Activity 6.9

1. With the help of your teacher.

2. In groups, compare slave trade in the 17th Century and 21st Century in

south Sudan.

3. Present your findings to the teacher.

Current wave of slavery in Sudan began in 1983 with the second Sudanese

civil war between North and South. It involved large numbers of “African”

Sudanese mainly the Dinka, Nuer and Nuba being captured, sold and exploited

in other ways by Northern Sudanese “Arabs.” In 1989, the National Islamic

backed military government took power and the Khartoum government

declared “jihad” against non-Muslim opposition in the South. The Baggara of

North Sudan who neighbor the Dinka in the South were also given freedom

to kill these groups, loot their wealth, capture slaves, expel the rest from

the territories and forcefully settle their lands. The Sudan criminal code of

1991 did not list slavery as a crime. According to the Imam of Ansar and

former prime minister, Sadiq Al Mahdi, “jihad requires initiating hostilities for

religious purposes. It is true that the regime has not enacted a law to realise

slavery in Sudan. But the traditional concept of jihad does allow slavery as a

by- product.”

Human rights watch and others described the contemporary form of slavery

mainly as the work of the armed government backed militia of the Baggara

tribes who raid civilian primary of the Dinka ethic group from the Southern

region. These slaves were “forced to work for free in homes and in the fields,

punished when they refuse and abused physically and sometimes sexually.”

The government of Sudan used slavery as a low cost way of weakening

its enemy in the second Sudanese civil war, the rebel Sudanese People’s

Liberation Movement or Army (SPLM or A) which was thought to have a

base of support among the Dinka of Southern Sudan. Abductions during this

war are estimated to range from 14,000 to 200,000.However; modern slave

trading did not reach the scale of the 19th Century. It was done “discreetly”

and kept to a minimal level to conceal evidence. Slave owners in the North

would deny that Southern children were working for them as slaves unlike the

19 th century. Slave trade was organised and carried out openly and legally.

Many freed slaves bore signs of beatings, burnings and other forms of

torture. Three quarters of the women and the girls reported rape. One 11

year old Christian boy narrated about his first days in captivity “I was told to

be a Muslim several times and I refused which is why they cut of my finger.”

Thirteen-year-old Akon was seized by Sudanese military while in her village

five years ago. She was gang raped by six government soldiers and witnessed

seven executions before being sold to a Sudanese Arab.

In the modern times, South Sudan is a source country of men; women

and children trafficked internally for purposes of forced labour and sexual

exploitation. Sudanese women and girls are trafficked to Middle Eastern

countries such as Qatar for domestic labour and to European countries such

as Poland for sexual exploitation. Sudanese children are trafficked through

Yemen to Saudi Arabia for forced begging. Sudanese gangs coerce young

Sudanese refugees into prostitution in nightclubs. Apart from direct capture

by the militia, the civil conflicts in Sudan, which left many southerners,

displaced especially the Dinka, created another avenue for slavery. Destitute

parents sell their children for labour. Children sold are mostly boys between

the ages of 7 to 12 years.

It was worth noting that the government of South Sudan signed the United

Nations Convention on child’s rights (CRC) on 4th May 2015 taking a

critical step towards protecting and promoting child’s rights.

Remember!!

Comparison between slave trade in the 17th Century and 21st

Century in South Sudan

Similarities

1. Both races taken as slaves.

2. In both, strong men and women are taken as slaves.

3. In both, there is a price that is paid either in form of materials or money.

Differences

1. Motive of slavery in the 17th Century was the need of labourers in

European plantations while in the 21st Century the motive is for

domestic workforce.

2. In the 17th Century, energetic mature men and women were the ones

taken as slaves while in the 21st Century; anyone can be taken as a slave

including children and women.

3. Slaves in the 17th Century were exchanged for goods for example,

exchange of slaves for cloths. Slave trade in the 21st Century involves

exchange of slaves for money.

4. In the 17th Century, slaves were captured forcefully compared to the

21st Century where people go willingly in search of jobs.

5. Portuguese were given trading licenses for slave trade in the 17th

Century compared to the 21st Century where slave trade is illegal.

Keywords

Bled: Loose blood from the body as a result of an injury.

Civil unrest: Mass violence/riots by people demanding a political

change

Collieries: Coal mines and all the buildings, machines connected

to it.

Execution: loo

Fragment: Asmallpieceorapartespeciallywhenbrokenfrom

something whole.

Forkedpoles: Poles which have ends divided into two.

Merchants: Apersonwhosejobistobuyorsellgoodsinlarge

amounts.

Sail: Travel on water

Slave raid: Ashortcertainattackonaplacetoobtainslaves.

Surbodinates: Subjects of people under certain rank.

Susceptible: Arisktosomething.

Plantation: Alonglandofplants.

Porcelain: Ahardbutdelicateshinywhitesomethingmadeby

heating clay to high temperatures.

End of Unit Exercise

1. What were the types and items of trade in south Sudan?

2. What routes were used for trade in south Sudan and Africa?

3. How was slave trade in south Sudan and Africa organised?

4. Identify the ways in which slaves were obtained in Trans Atlantic

Slave Trade.

5. Discuss the effects slave trade had in Africa.

6. Describe how slavery is organised in modern world.

CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN

SOUTH SUDAN

Mission groups that came to South Sudan in the 19th

Century

The following were major mission societies that entered South Sudan in the

19th century:

1. Roman Catholics. They were in South Sudan in 1842.

2. American Presbyterian Mission.

3. The Anglican Church Missionary Society

4. African Inland Mission started their work in 1949.

5. Anglicans and Presbyterians started work in 1899.

6. The Sudan Interior Mission.

The above missions founded various churches in South Sudan like;

• The Presbyterian Church of South Sudan,

• The Sudan Interior Church and

• The African Inland Church.

Mission groups helping people in South Sudan.

Unit

Activity 7.1

1. Do you know who a Christian missionary is? Discuss this in class.

2. List down in your notebook the missionary churches that operate in

South Sudan starting with those in your area.

3. A few of you to read them out loud to the class.

Reasons for the coming of missionaries to South Sudan

1. They came to spread Christianity.

2. They came to civilise Africans for example by providing education,

teaching them hygiene and so on.

3. Some missionaries came to trade too.

4. Some missionaries were explorers too.

Activities of early missionaries in South Sudan

• They preached the gospel of Christ.

• They set up schools.

• They set up hospitals.

• They stopped slave trade.

• They rehabilitated slaves.

Note that the missionaries in South Sudan today still carry out the above

activities. We still have areas in Sudan where Slavery is still practiced. With

the civil war in Sudan, the missionaries and the already established churches

have taken over some new roles which include resettling refugees, preaching

hope to the desperate, distributing humanitarian aid to the displaced,

negotiating for ceasefires and participating in peace talks. Examples of church

organisations that have taken over these new roles are the catholic relief

services and the Solidarity with Sudan, which is an international catholic

organization that works in Sudan. The Anglican Church and Presbyterian

Church do the same too. Some church leaders have moved with their flock to

neighboring countries due to insecurity. Some Comboni missionary fathers

are in Uganda serving the South Sudanese refugees in Uganda. They are

missionaries in exile. Father Jesus Aranda who was formerly based in Kajo-

Keji County in South Sudan under the Catholic diocese at Yei is an example.

Activity 7.2

1. Together with your teacher, discuss what Christian churches have done

for your community.

2. Do you have foreign missionaries who come to your area? What do they

come to do? What have they done so far? Write down their activities.

Problems faced by early Christian missionaries in South

Sudan

• The missionaries suffered from tropical diseases like malaria.

• There was very poor transport in South Sudan it was hard to reach

people.

• Many Sudanese did not want to change from their traditional African

beliefs despite much convincing. A writer by the name Marc Nikkle

describes one missionary Archibald Shaw who worked among the

Dinka as “a Whiteman with a heart of a Dinka” He never gave up in his

mission work. At one time he said “the people are primitive and ignorant

with deep tribal prejudices against foreigners of any kind. Unlimited

patience and years of labour, are humanly speaking, necessary before

these people are won to Christ”. Later the same missionary said “Iam

getting more fond of the Jieng up here (Gualla) ……” This showed

persistence paid. However in some areas some missionaries gave up

and closed stations like at Malek and Lau.

• Hostile people attacked missionaries in stations. The Church missionary

society re-opened the station at Lau but it had to be moved further to

Akot because of security due to attacks from the Nuer. Many lost their

lives in different parts of Sudan. Their converts too were killed.

• In some areas Islam was already deeply rooted. It was hard to convince

them to turn to Christianity.

• Slave raiders and traders hated them for spoiling their trade.

• It was hard to communicate to the people as they did not know their

language. They had to learn the local language first which was difficult

for them.

• They did not have enough money to buy food, to build churches or

hospitals.

• Communication systems were very poor and it was hard for them to

pass information to their mother countries. At times they needed urgent

help like security, which they could not easily find. By the time the

information reached their mother countries it was too late. Some lost

their lives.

A mission center in South Sudan

Problems that churches face in Sudan today

They face attacks from armed groups. Catholic sisters were attacked at

the Solidarity teacher training college in Yambio who do not want them to

operate in the area. Many other Christians have died in Sudan over the years.

The Episcopal church of Sudan recognises martyrs of Sudan in its liturgical

calendar (Christian year calendar).

They face shortage of staff. After the attack at Yambio for example, training

staff from Kenya and Uganda were evacuated leading to a big shortage of

staff at the college.

They live in fear, as there is a lot of violence in South Sudan. There

are many militias and almost everyone is armed. There is a complete lack

of respect for human. In 2016, South Sudanese troops attacked aid workers

in a Juba hotel and raped several women and carried out mock executions.

Americans were specifically singled out. UN peacekeepers did not respond

on time. Many foreigners were evacuated. Many catholic foreign workers

however chose to remain and serve the common man but this does not

remove the fear in them, as they always have to be vigilant.

Inter-mission competition. The early mission churches like the African

inland church and the Anglican Church are facing a big challenge from the

many Pentecostal churches coming up. They are losing many followers to

them.

Church mission stations today are overflowing with internally displaced

people who have nowhere to call home. The men and women of God are

over whelmed in feeding them, treating them and ensuring their security.

Inaccessibility. Many areas in South Sudan are still remote thus many

churches find it hard to reach there and preach the gospel or help the people.

We still have large populations of illiterate people thus many converts cannot

read the bible even in their own mother tongue.

Competition from Islam. The church faces a lot of hostility from Muslims.

Their families kill some converts from Islam. In some cases they escape death

by a whisker. This is because some Muslims refuse to recognise conversions

out of Islam. They do not recognize marriage to non-Muslims. In 2014 there

is a story that caught international attention where a lady who was raised

as a Christian due to a missing Muslim father was sentenced to death for

marrying a non-Muslim. Maryan Ibrahim Ishaq was accused of apostasy.

She married a Christian man from South Sudan. This was a form of adultery

to some Muslims. International pressure on the Sudan government made her

to be released. She feared for her life and had to flee from Sudan.

Language problem. Foreign missionaries today still face the problem of

language barrier in the areas they go to operate.

Positive impact of Christian missionaries in South Sudan

1. They have built schools increasing literacy in South Sudan.

2. They have set up hospitals where the sick get treatment.

3. They have helped resettle so many internally displaced persons in

collaboration with national and international bodies.

4. They have converted many to Christianity.

5. They have negotiated for peace between warring groups of people.

6. They have helped some communities get rid of bad traditional practices

like homosexuality, early marriages, witchcraft and raiding.

Negative impacts of Christian missionaries in South Sudan

1. African abandoned their traditional ways of living. They followed what

Europeans had introduced.

2. Some traditional places of worship (shrines) were found in secluded

places such as forests. With declining belief in traditional ways of

worship such as places have been destroyed by human activities.

3. Some ways of worship promoted moral values in the society. They

were used to reinforce teachings and beliefs in traditional life that

shaped people’s behavior. Some vices in the society today result from

wrong teachings interpreted from religious teachings brought by the

missionaries.

A missionary with Sudanese

Activity 7.3

Get into groups of about six and discuss any negative effects of the coming

of missionaries in South Sudan. Present your answers to class.

Keywords

Apostacy: Istheformaldisa󰀩liationorabandonmentor

renunciation of a religion by a person. Embracing

an opinion contrary to ones previous beliefs.

Ceasere: Atemporarysuspensionofghting.

Inaccessibility: Most challenging to reach owing to remoteness

from geographical features that could provide

access.

Homosexuality: Is a romantic, sexual attractio or sexual behaviour

between members of the same sex or gender.

Mission society: Is an interdenominational christian organisation.

Mock executions: It is a strategy where a victim is deliberately or

falsely made to feel that their execution or that of

another person is imminent or is taking place.

Primitive: Uncivilisedbehaviour.

Rehabilitative: To return someone or something to a good or

healthy condition, state or way of living.

Tropical disease: Seasonal diseases which are caused by weather

or climate variations.

Vigilant: Always being careful to notice things especially

possible danger.

End of Unit Exercise

1. List five missionary societies that worked in South Sudan from the

19th century.

2. What problems do missionaries face in South Sudan today?

3. Name five church related organisations that is working in your area

to help people.

4. List seven achievements of Christian churches in South Sudan.