Longhorn Secondary

Agriculture

Student’s Book

Form 1

Daniel Cheruiyot

Joseph Gachagua

Published by

Longhorn Publishers (Kenya) Ltd.,

Funzi Road, Industrial Area,

P.O. Box 18033-00500,

Nairobi, Kenya.

Longhorn Publishers (Uganda) Ltd.,

Kanjokya Street, Plot 74,

Kamwokya,

P.O. Box 24745,

Kampala, Uganda.

Longhorn Publishers (Tanzania) Ltd.,

New Bagamoyo Road/Garden Road,

Mikocheni B, Plot No. MKC/MCB/81,

P.O. Box 1237,

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

Longhorn Publishers Rwanda Ltd.,

166 KG 13 o KG 11 Avenue,

P.O. Box 5910,

Kigali, Rwanda.

system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the Copyright owner.

Acknowledgements:

Cover design by Ben Nyang’oma and Bruce Kynes Kinyanjui.

Artwork by Kabugo Ngugi Martin.

Photography, courtesy of Oryx Photo-Video Services

First published 2005

Reprinted 2005,

Corrected 2009

Reprinted 2010, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016

Revised Edition 2017

ISBN 978 996 649 548 7

Printed by Multivista G lobal Ltd.,

43, Vandalur Kelambakkam Road, Pudupakkam,

Chennai, Tamil Nadu, Pin Code:; 603 103.

Page

1. Introduction to Agriculture.................................................. 1

Denition................................................................................. 1

Branches of Agriculture. ................................................. 2

Systems of Farming................................................................. 6

Methods of Farming................................................................ 9

Role of Agriculture in the economy ........................................ 12

End of Unit 1 Test .................................................................. 14

Factors inuencing Agriculture ........................................... 15

Human factors ......................................................................... 15

Biotic factor............................................................................. 20

Climatic factors........................................................................ 23

Edaphic factors........................................................................ 30

End of Unit 2 Test .................................................................. 57

Farm tools and equipment.................................................... 58

Categories of farm tools and equipment ................................. 59

Garden tools and equipment.................................................... 59

Livestock production tools and equipment ............................. 69

Workshop tools and equipment ............................................... 81

Learning activities................................................................... 103

End of Unit 3 Test .................................................................. 103

Crop production 1 (Land preparation) ............................... 105

Denition ................................................................................ 105

Importance of land preparation... ............................................ 105

Operations in land preparation........... ..................................... 105

Minimum tillage...................................................................... 113

Project...................................................................................... 114

Learning Activities. ................................................................. 114

End of Unit 3 Test .................................................................. 115

Water supply, irrigation and drainage ................................ 116

Water supply.. .......................................................................... 116

Irrigation.................................................................................. 126

Class project ............................................................................ 133

Drainage .................................................................................. 134

Table of Content

iii

Water pollution........................................................................ 137

Learning Activities .................................................................. 138

End of Unit 5 test................................................................... 138

Soil fertility 1 (Organic manures) ........................................ 139

Soil fertility ............................................................................. 139

Organic manures...................................................................... 142

Learning Activities ................................................................. 149

End of Unit 6 Test .................................................................. 149

Livestock breeds .................................................................... 150

Importance of livestock........................................................... 150

Common breeds of livestock................................................... 151

Cattle breeds............................................................................ 151

Sheep breeds............................................................................ 162

Goat breeds.............................................................................. 168

Pigs.......................................................................................... 173

Poultry breeds.......................................................................... 178

Camels..................................................................................... 183

Rabbit breeds........................................................................... 184

Terms used to describe livestock............................................. 187

Learning Activities .................................................................. 189

End of Unit 7 Test .................................................................. 189

Agricultural economics 1 ...................................................... 191

Denitions ............................................................................... 192

Basic concepts of economics................................................... 192

Farm records............................................................................ 193

Learning Activity..................................................................... 201

End of Unit 8 Test .................................................................. 201

Introduction to Agriculture

UNIT 1

Specic objectives

By the end of the topic, I should be able to:

a) deneagriculture

b) statethemainbranchesofagriculture.

c) describefarmingsystems

d) explaintheroleofagricultureintheeconomyanddemonstratean

 appreciationofitsimportancetothecountry.

e) demonstrateanappreciationforthewideandvariedopportunitiesinagriculture.

Introduction

Humanbeingshavepractisedfarmingforafewcenturiesonly.Earlierwelivedashunters

and gatherers. Due to continuous hunting, several game animals became extinct. The

humanpopulationalsoincreasedcreatingtheneedtofeedtheincreasingpopulation.This

forcedhumanbeingstodomesticateanimalsandshifttointensivemethodsofplanting

wildseedsandroots.

Deliberateplantcultivationisthoughttohavebeganaround8000B.C.whereasanimal

domesticationstartedmuchearlier.ThetermAgricultureisderivedfromtwoLatinwords,

‘ager’whichreferstoeldorland,and‘cultura’whichmeanscultivation.

Denition

Agriculturecanbedenedasthescienceandartofcropandlivestockproduction.

Agriculturecanberegardedasanartasitinvolvestheapplicationofhumanskillswhich

canbemanipulatede.g.milking,constructionoffarmstructures,measuringoflandsizes,

weighing,harvesting,marketing,operatingfarmmachineryandcultivation.

Ontheotherhand,itcanberegardedasasciencebecauseofitsapplicationofintellectual

andpracticalactivitiesthroughobservation,experimentationandanalysis.Thisinvolves

specialisedarease.g.

Genetics:Thisisthestudyofheredity and variation in organisms and is useful in the

breedingofcropsandanimals.

Pathology:Thisisthebranchofmedicineconcernedwiththecause,symptomsandcontrol

ofdiseases.

Entomology:Thisisthebranchofscienceconcernedwiththestudyofinsectsandtheir

control.

Ecology: This is the study of the relationships between living organisms and their

environment.

Pedology:Thisisthestudyofsoils.

Agricultural engineering:Thisistheapplicationofscienticprinciplestothedesign,

construction,andmaintenanceofagriculturaltoolsandmachinery.

Fig. 1.1: Tree diagram for agricultural activities

Agriculture

Science

Art

Entomology

Ecology

Pathology

Pedology

Agricultural

engineering

Milking

Constructionof

farmstructures

Marketing

Weighing

Harvesting

Operatingvarious

farmmachineries

Measuringlandsizes

Genetics

Branches of agriculture

Agricultureisdividedintofourmajorbranchesnamely:crop farming, livestock farming,

agricultural economics, and agricultural engineering.

1. Crop farming/ Arable farming

Itinvolvesthegrowingofcropsonly.Thetypesofcropsgrownwilldependonvarious

factors such as: ecological conditions e.g. altitude, rainfall, temperature and soils,

availabilityofmarket,farmers’needsandpreferences,possibilityofirrigationandcapital

availability.Thevariouswaysofpractisingcropfarminginclude:

(i) Field crops

ThegrowingofeldcropsisverycommoninKenyaespeciallywithsmallscalefarmers.

Theeldcropsareabletoreachmaturitywithlittleattendancebythefarmers.Theplanting

ofeldcropsisprogrammedtocoincidewiththerainfallseason.Thiscallsforagood

knowledgeoftherainfallpatternofagivenregionandotherecologicalrequirementsof

eldcrops.Examplesofeldcropsaremaize,beans,potatoes,wheatandcoffee.

(ii) Horticulture

Horticulturereferstothegrowingofhighlyperishablecrops.Thesecropsrequirehighlevel

ofmanagementfromplantingtimetoharvestingandmarketing.Horticulturalfarmingis

only possible where there is enoughwater, especially, for irrigation. It isdivided into

threecategories:-Floriculture,olericultureandpomoculture.

Floriculture

This involves the growing of owers e.g. carnations and roses. Floriculture is mainly

practisedingreenhouses.FlowergrowinginKenyaismainlymeantfortheEuropean

market.Limuru,Naivasha,NyahururuandThikaareasareknownforlargescaleower

production.

Olericulture

Thisisthegrowingofvegetablese.g.cabbages,tomatoes,onions,Frenchbeans,etc.Itis

doneonsmallscaleandlargescaleforbothlocalandforeignmarkets.HomegrownLtd

isanexampleofacompanythatpracticesolericulture.

Pomoculture/Pomology

Pomocultureisthegrowingoffruitssuchascitrus,mangoes,passionfruits,pineapples,

etc.AnumberofcompaniesinKenya,suchas,DelmonteandKakuziareinvolvedinfruit

productionforlocalandforeignmarkets.

HorticultureisbecomingincreasinglypopularinKenya.Itgeneratessubstantialforeign

exchangebesidescreatingalotofjobopportunities.In2005,itrankedthirdinforeign

exchangeearningafterteaandtourism.In2004,horticultureearnedKshs.35billion,with

aproductionof130,000tonnes.Ingeneral,horticultureearnsmoreperunitarea,thanany

othereldcrop.

2. Livestock farming

Fig 1.3: Fully blossomed owers

Fig 1.2: Flower plantation

Livestock is any domesticated animal kept for its produce. There are four categories

oflivestockfarmingnamely:pastoralfarming,shfarming,aquafarmingbeefarming

(apiculture)andpoultryfarming.

(i) Pastoralism

This is also referred to as mammalian livestock farming. It involves the rearing of

mammalian animals, such as, cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, rabbits, camels, and donkeys.

Somemammalsproduceextramilkforthefarmer’sconsumptionandsale,andfortheir

youngonese.g.dairycattle,dairygoats,andcamels.Themammalsarealsokeptformeat

productionandotherproductse.g.wool,hides,andskins.

(ii) Fish farming

Fish is normally found innatural watersources such as lakes, streams, naturalponds,

dams, etc. However, sh farming can also be practised in constructed structures like

shponds.Thekeepingofshforhumanconsumptioniscalledaquaculture.Themost

commonshspeciesrearedinKenyaisthetilapia.LakeVictoriaandLakeTurkanaare

importantsourcesoftilapiaforthelocalmarket.Riversarealsomajorsourcesofshe.g.

RiverTana.

(iii) Apiculture

Apicultureis the breedingandcare ofbees.Bees arekeptmainly for honeyandwax.

Theyarerearedinhivessitedinthefarm,referredtoasanapiary.InKenya,beekeeping

iscommoninareasinMeru,Kitui,andBaringo,whereitiscarriedoutforcommercial

purposesofhoneyharvestinginbothsmallandlargescaleproduction.

(iv) Poultry farming

Thetermpoultryreferscollectivelytodomesticbirds.Thechickenisthemostcommonly

kept bird. Although ducks, turkeys, and guineafowlsare also kept in many farms in

Kenya.Poultryaremainlykeptforeggandmeatproduction.

3.Agricultural economics

Agricultural production involves the use of limitedresources likeland,capital, labour

andmanagement.Theseresourcesarealsoknownasfactorsofproductionandmustbe

properlyallocatedinordertominimisecostswhileatthesametimemaximisingrevenue

(prot). This is achieved through proper record keeping, application of principles of

economics,properaccountingandmarketing.

4.Agricultural engineering

Thisbranchofagriculturedealswithfarmstructuresusedincropandlivestockproduction

e.g. zero-grazing unit, fences, sh ponds, crush and sprayrace, tools, equipment and

machineryto carry outvariousfarm operationssuchas landpreparationand livestock

handling.

Italsoappliestheuseofirrigationsystemsforwatercollection,conveyance,andstorage.

Fig. 1.4: Branches of Agriculture

Cropfarming

Floriculture

Fieldcrops

Horticulture

Pastoralism

Fishfarming

Apiculture

Poultryfarming

Olericulture

Livestockfarming

Agricultural

economics

Agricultural

engineering

Agriculture

Pomology

Systems of farming

A farming system refers to the way farm enterprises (resources) are organised and

utilised. Farm activities and enterprises are organised in various ways depending on

theresourcesavailableatthefarmer’sdisposal.Themostimportantfactors(resources)

in determining the system of farming are land, capital, labour, and management. The

Howthefarmer(organises)theseresourcesgivesrisetofourfarmingsystemsnamely:

extensive, intensive, large scale, and small scalefarming.

1. Extensive farming

Thissysteminvolvesuseoflargeportionsofland,normallywithlowcapital,labour,

andmanagementinvestment.Thereisalsoverylittlemechanization.Extensivefarming

ismostly carriedoutin marginalareas andwastelands.Farming methodslikepastoral

nomadismfallunderthiscategory.

Advantages of extensive farming

• Itischeapduetolowcapitalinput.

• Itrequireslesslabourinput.

• Properutilisationofmarginalareaswhichcouldnothaveotherwisebeenutilised.

• Itdoesnotrequireahighlevelofmanagementorskills.

Disadvantages of extensive farming

• Ithasalowoutputduetothelowinvestmentincapital,labourandmanagement.

• Thelandisunder-utilised.

• Itcannotbepracticedindenselypopulatedareassinceitrequireslargeportionsof

land.

• Ithasalowprotperunitareaduetolowoutput.

2. Intensive farming

This system is characterised by the use of much labour, huge capital investment, and

requiresahighlevelofmanagementskills.Agriculturalmechanisationisalsopractised.

Irrigationisalsousedwherenecessary.Anexampleofanintensivefarmingsystemis

horticulturalfarming,whichusuallyresultsinhighreturnsperunitarea.

Advantages of intensive farming

• Thereismaximumutilisationofland.

• Itcanbepracticedindenselypopulatedareas.

• Itresultsinhighincomeandhighnetrevenue(prot)forthefarmer.

• Duetothehighlevelofmanagementinvolved,intensivefarmingoftengiveshigh

yieldsandhighqualityproduce.

Disadvantages of intensive farming

• Itcanleadtobiglosses,intheeventoffailureduetopoororineffectivemanagement,

orduetodiseaseand/orpestattack.

• Highinitialcapitalisrequired.

• Highlabourcostsareincurred.

• Itrequiresahighlevelofskillsandmanagement.

3. Large scale farming

Thisisthegrowingofcropsorkeepingoflivestockunderlargeareasofland(usually,

over20hectares).Itismainlydoneforcommercialpurposes.Itischaracterisedbythe

establishment of onelarge enterprise e.g. a coffee /tea  estate (plantation) or a  ranch

wherebeefcattlearekeptespeciallyinmarginalareas.

Theoperationsareusuallymechanised(i.e.involveuseofmachinery).Thisisespecially

soduringlandpreparation,planting,andinsomecases,harvesting,e.g.ofwheat.Large

scalefarmingcanbeintensiveorextensive.

Advantages of large scale farming

• Itresultsinhighyields.

• Thefarmertakesadvantageoftheeconomiesofscaletoincreaseprots.

• Itpromotesforeignexchangeearningforthecountry.

• Itcreatesemploymentopportunitiesowingtothelargelabourforcerequiredwhere

mechanizationisnotpossible.

Disadvantages of large scale farming

• Ahugecapitalinvestmentisrequiredforthepurchaseoffarminputsandmachinery.

• Alotoflabourforceisrequired,especiallywheremechanizationisnotpossible,e.g.

incoffeeandteaharvesting.

• Ahighlevelmanagementisneededtorealisegoodprot.

• Heavylossescanresultintheeventofdiseaseandpestoutbreaks.

• Itcanonlybepractisedwheretherearelargetractsofland.

4. Small scale farming

This is the growingof crops and orkeeping of livestock under a limited area of land

(usually,lessthan5hectares).Itischaracterisedbylimitedmechanization(i.e.littleuseof

machinery).Mostsmallscalefarmersrelyontheirfamilyforlabour.Duringpeakperiods,

casual labour can  be hired to supplement the family labour. The majority of farmers

inKenyaaresmallscalefarmers.Smallscalefarmingcanbepractisedforcommercial

purposesorforsubsistence.Itcanbeintensiveorextensive.

Conditions that lead to small scale farming

• Lackofadequateland.

• Limitedcapitalforlargescalefarming.

• Lackofmarketorincentives.

• Governmentpolicy.

Advantages of small scale farming

• Itrequireslowcapitalinvestment.

• Ithasalowlabourrequirement.

• Thefarmercansellanysurplusproducetogenerateincomeforthefamily.

Disadvantages of small scale farming

• Ithasalowproductionperunitareaduetolowinvestmentsininputsandmanagement.

• Itislessprotablethanlargescalefarming.

• Themarketingofproduceisdifcultandunprotable.

Methods of farming

Landisthemostimportantfactor,foragriculturalproductionthoughitslimited.

Besidesland,thereareotherfactorsthatinuencefarming.

Theseinclude:

(i) Thesocio-culturalvaluesofthecommunity.

(ii) Thefarmers’tastesandpreferences.

(iii) Theamountofcapitalavailabletothefarmer.

(iv) Labourrequirementoravailability.

These factors inuence the choice of the farming method, where farmers may choose

to grow crops, and/or keep livestock for domestic consumption (subsistence) or for

commercialpurposes.

1. Mixed farming

Thisisthepracticeofgrowingcropsandkeepinglivestockonthesamepieceoflandat

thesametime.Itiscommonlypractisedinmediumandhighpotentialareas.Mostsmall

scalefarmerspracticemixedfarmingforfoodandlivestockproduction.

Advantages of mixed farming

• Animals produce farmyard manure which is used in crop elds to improve soil

fertility.

• Cropresidues,suchas,strawandmaizestalkscanbefedtolivestock.

• Diversicationofproductionisasecurityagainstcropfailureorlivestockproduction

losses.

• Itensuresmaximumutilisationoflandandlabourthroughouttheyear.

• Draughtanimalscanbeusedforvariousfarmoperationse.g.forlandpreparationand

transportationoffarmproduce.

• Itminimisesriskandensuresdistributionofincomethroughouttheyear.

• Ensureasteadyincomeofthefarmerthroughouttheyear.

Disadvantages of mixed farming

• Itrequiresahighlevelofmanagementandskills.

• Ifnotwellconned,livestockcandamagecrops.

• Itislabourintensive.

2. Nomadic pastoralism

Pastoralism is the keeping of large herds of mammalian livestock. Nomadism is the

movementofpeopleandtheanimalsfromplacetoplaceinsearchoffood/pastureand

water.Nomadic pastoralismthereforereferstoafarmingmethodwhereanimals(such

ascattle,sheep,goatsandcamels),aretakentodifferentlocationsinsearchofpastures

andwater.

InKenya,itismostlypractisedinmarginalareas(aridandsemi-aridlands)whereland

iscommunallyowned.

Mostnomadsarehoweverchangingfrommovingallyearround(transhumance)tosettling

inpermanenthomesteadsandgrazinginpasturesneartheirsettlements(sedentary).

Advantages of nomadic pastoralism

• Itisagoodwayofutilisingmarginallands.

• ItisamajorsourceofmeatinKenya.

• ItisamajorsourceofincomeforpastoralcommunitiesinKenya.

Disadvantages of nomadic pastoralism

• Itencouragesthespreadoflivestockparasitesanddiseasesaslivestockmixduring

grazingatwateringpoints.

• Overstockingiscommonduetoovergrazing,andsubsequentlytosoildegradation.

• Encroachmentofgamereserves/nationalparkswhichmaycauseunnecessaryconict

andstrainrelationswiththegovernment.

• Itisamajorsourceofethnictensionsandconictsamongnomadictribesasthe

nomadsghtforcontrolofgoodpasturelandandwater.

• Breedingcontrolisnotpractisedwhichleadtoinbreedingandmatingofunder-age

females.

• Lowproductivityasanimalswastealotofenergymovingfromoneplacetoanother

insearchofpastureandwater.

3. Shifting cultivation

Thismethodinvolvesclearingofapieceoflandfollowedbyseveralyearsoffarming

untilthesoillosesitsfertility.Oncethesoillosesitsfertility,thelandisthenleftfallow

(underrest)forsometime.Thefarmerthenmoves(shifts)toaneweld,clearsit,and

startsfarmingonit.

This method of farming is often practised at the level of an individual or family, but

sometimesmayinvolveanentirevillage.

Advantages of shifting cultivation

• Landisallowedtorestandre-gainitsfertility.

• Thereislowincidenceofpestsanddiseasesasthefarmershiftsbeforetheybuildup.

• Thecostofproductionislowerasthefertilizersarenotused.

Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

• Soilconservationpracticesnotapplied.

• Themethodcannotbeusedinareaswithlimitedland.

• Itisnotsuitableforgrowingperennialcrops.

•Longtermplanningoffarmactivitiesisnotpossible.

4. Organic farming

This is a farming method where crops are grown and livestock reared without use of

inorganicfertilizersandotheragro-chemicals.Agro-chemicalshaveresidualeffectson

crops and this may affect human beings and livestock. Agro-chemicals are also quite

expensive.TheEuropeanUnion,amajorimporterofKenya’sfarmproduce,hascomeup

withstringentmeasurestoreducetheuseofagro-chemicalsinfarming.

Advantages of organic farming

•Itisandcost-effective.

•Itmakesuseoflocallyavailablematerials.

•Itisusedtoimprovethesoilstructure.

5.Agroforestry

Thisisthegrowingofbothtreescropsonthesamepieceofland.Agroforestryisdesigned

toprovidetreeandothercropproductsandatthesametimeprotect,conserve,diversify

andsustainvitaleconomic,environmental,humanandnaturalresources.

Advantages of agroforestry

• Treesreducesoilerosioninagivenarea.

• Leguminous trees, e.g. Leucaena leucocephala, and Calliandra calothyrsus add

nitratesintothesoil,thus,improvingsoilfertility.

• Trees e.g. Calliandra, can be used as livestock fodder to provide a high level of

proteins.

• Theyareimportantsourcesofwoodfuelandtimbere.g.Grevillearobusta.

• Thereismaximumutilisationofland.

Role of agriculture in the economy

AgricultureisthemainstayoftheKenyaneconomyasitplaysthefollowingmajorroles:

(i) Food supply

Agricultureprovidesfood needed to provide energy and goodhealthtoenable human

beings engage in productive activities. The food comes from crops such as cereals,

vegetables,fruits,andfromlivestockproductssuchasmeat,eggsandmilk.Withanever-

growing  population, there is need to improve agricultural productivity. The National

CerealsandProduceBoard(N.C.P.B.)ischargedwiththeresponsibilityofmaintaining

strategicfoodreservestomeetthecountriesfoodneeds.

(ii) Source of employment

Employmentopportunitiesintheagriculturalsectorcomeeitherasself,directorindirect.

Underdirectemployment,oneisemployedinthefarmsasamilk-man,workerinateaor

sugarcaneplantation,farmmanager,casuallabourer,etc.

Agriculturealsoprovidesemploymentindirectlywhereoneisemployedinagro-based

industries,suchas,theNewKenyaCo-operativeCreameries,MumiasSugarCompany,

KenyaTeaPackers;andinresearchstationse.g.KenyaAgriculturalResearchInstitute

(KARI)aswellasmarketingofagriculturalfarmproductsandagrochemicals.Many

farmersdevotealltheirtimeworkingontheirfarmsasself-employmentandearnsthem

substantialincome.

Agriculturealsoprovidesemploymentindirectlywhereoneisemployedinagrobased

industries such as the New Kenya Cooperative Cremeries, Mumias Sugar Company,

Kenya Tea Packers and in research stations e.g Kenya Agricultural Research Institute

(KARI)aswellasmarketingasagricalturalfarmproductsandagrochemical.

Manyfarmersdevotealltheirtimeworkingontheirfarmsasselfemploymentandearns

themsubstantialincome.

(iii) Foreign exchange earner

AgricultureisthemainforeignexchangeearnerforKenyaproviding60%oftotalforeign

exchangeearning.Intheyear2004,forexample,teaproductionearnedofKshs.43billion,

whiletheforeignexchangefromhorticulturewasKshs35billion,themoneyearnedfrom

foreignexchangecontributesgreatlytothecountry’sGrossDomesticProduct(G.D.P).

(iv) Sources of raw materials for industries

Most  industries in Kenya are agricultural-based as they process raw materials from

agriculture.

ExampletoAgricultural-basedindustriesinclude:

• Canningindustriese.g.Delmontewhichprocessespineapples.

• NewKenyaCo-operativeCreamerieswhichprocessesmilk.

• Leatherprocessingindustrieswhichprocesshidesandskins.

• Textileprocessingindustrieswhichprocesscotton.

(v) Provision of market for industrial goods

Manyactivitiesarecarriedoutduringcropandlivestockproduction.Theserequiretools,

equipment,machinery,andinputssuchasfertilizers,pesticides,drugs,jembes,ploughs,

livestock feeds, e.t.c. Theindustries provide these goodsand therefore, There isgood

marketforthesegoodswherealotofagriculturalactivitiesaretakingplace.

(vi) Source of income/capital

Thefarmersgetsomeincomewhenproducingforcommercialpurposes.Whichisused

tomeettheirbasichouseholdneeds.Thegovernmentalsogetsincomethroughtaxes

andlevies.Thishelpsthegovernmenttonancenationaldevelopmentprojectssuchas

provisionofeducationfacilities,healthfacilities,roadconstruction,etc.

End of Unit 1 Test

1. Listanythreemajorbranchesofagriculture.

2. Outline/DescribetheimportanceofagriculturetotheeconomyofKenya.

3. FromwhichtwoLatinwordsistheterm“Agriculture”derived?Givethemeaning

ofeachword.

4. (a)Outlinetheactivitieswhicharelearntandperformedmanuallyinagriculture.

 (b)Outlinetheactivitieswhichinvolveexperimentationandapplicationofscientic

knowledgeinsolvingproblemsinagriculture.

5. Whatdoyouunderstandbythefollowingterms?

 (a) Crops. (b)Livestock.

6. Whatisarablefarming?

7. What name is given to a system in which  crop farming and livestock keeping is

carriedoutonthesamepieceoflandatthesametime?

8. Namefourfactorswhichdeterminethesystemoffarminginagivenplace.

9. Name thetypeoffarmingwhichis sometimes referred to as the “slash and burn”

method.

10. Statetheconditionsunderwhichshiftingcultivationispractised.

11. Whatisorganicfarming?

12. Denethefollowingterms:

 (a) Pathology (b) Entomology (c) Pedology

13. Denethefollowingterms:

 (a) Floriculture (b) Olericulture (c)Pomoculture.

14. Giveadvantagesofthefollowingmethodsoffarming

 (i) Mixedfarming

 (ii) Agroforestry

 (iii)Normadicpastoralism

15. Statethedifferencebetweenintesiveandextensivefarming

Factors Inuencing Agriculture

UNIT 2

Specic objectives

By the end of the topic, I should be able to:

 a) Explainthehumanfactorsinuencingagriculture

 b) Explainthehumanfactorsinuencingagriculture

 c) Explainhowclimaticfactorsinuencingagriculture

 d) Denesoil

 e) Describetheprocessofsoilformation

 f) Describesoilprole

 g) Determinesoilconstituents

 h) Classifysoilsbyphysicalcharacteristics

 i) Explainchemicalpropertiesofsoil

 j) Relatecropandlivestockdistributiontosoilindifferent

Introduction

Farmingmethodsandsystemsvaryfromonepartofthecountrytoanother.Thoughthey

may have similar ecological conditions, their productivity still differ. The differences

inlevelofagriculturalproductivityareaffectedbyfourmajorfactors.Thesearehuman

factors, biotic factors, climatic factors and edaphic (soil) factors.

Human factors inuencing agriculture

Human factors are those considerations within man or man’s activities and how they

affectorimpactonagriculturalproduction.Thesefactorsare:levelofeducation,health,

economy,transportandcommunication,marketforces,governmentpolicies,aswellas

culturalandreligiousbeliefs.

1. Level of education and technology

Educationhasagreatimpactonagriculturalproductivityasitisessentialatalllevelsof

agriculturalproduction.

Theeffectsoflowlevelofeducationandtechnologyinclude:

• Inefciencyinfarmingactivities.

• Poorrecordkeeping.

• Inability to follow instructions when using agro-chemicals which might impact

negativelyonproductivity.

• Poormarketingofagriculturalproduceasoneisnotabletogathernecessarymarket

information.

• Inability to adopt new farming technology in agricultural production and have

knowledgeofcertainmanagementskillsforoptimumproduction.

Agriculturaleducationandtechnologyenablethefarmertomaximiseagriculturaloutput

duetothefollowingreasons:

• Educatedfarmerseasilyadoptmodernfarmingtechniques.

• Farmersareabletokeepandmakeuseofproperrecords.

• It enhances the farmer’s abilities to correctly time various farm operations, e.g.

plantingandharvesting,inordertorealisemaximumreturns.

• Knowledgeablefarmersareableto:

-applyagro-chemicalse.g.fertilizersincorrectproportionsandattherighttime;

-practicegoodcropandlivestockhusbandrypractices,suchas,contourploughing;

identify and control pests and diseases quickly before they spread;  - carry out

preventivetreatmentfortheanimals,etc.

 -abletomakerightdecisions.

2. Health

Goodhealthisapre-requisitetothegrowthanddevelopmentofanynation.Thequality

andquantityofworkdoneisdependentuponthephysicalandmentalwellbeingofthe

labourforce.Poorhealthnegativelyaffectsproductivityandreversesthegainsmadeby

ahealthyworkingpopulation.

DiseasessuchasHIV/AIDS,afffectpeople’shealthandsubsequentlytheirproductivity.

OfmajorconcerninKenyaisHIV/AIDS,whichaffectsthemostproductiveage-group

(15-49yrs),signicantlyloweringagriculturalproduction.

Effects of HIV/AIDS on Agriculture

• Lossofskilledlabourthroughdeathlowersproductivityandcausesabraindrainas

AIDSrelateddeathsusuallyleavebehindthemostvulnerablegroupofpeople(the

agedandorphans)whichisunproductivebycomparison.

• Time which could  have been used  on more productive agricultural activities is

insteadspentoncaringforthoseinfectedoraffectedbyHIV/AIDS.Thisnegatively

affectsagriculturalproduction.

• AlotofmoneyisspentontreatmentofpeoplewithHIV/AIDSloweringinvestments

inagriculture,i.e.littlecapitalismadeavailableforinvestinginagriculturalproduction

andinothereconomicactivities.

3. Economy

• Thesuccessofagricultureinacountrydependsontheprosperityofitseconomy.

• Withavibranteconomy,thereisavailabilityofcapitalnecessaryforacquisitionof

farmingmachineryandinputs.Astrongeconomyalsotranslatesintostrongcurrency

andthereforeimportsforfarmingarecheaper.

• Kenya has slowly moved towards a liberalised economy, where there is no tight

control on market prices by the government. Kenya has  membership in various

partnerships and  trade co-operations, such as, the East African Community and

COMESA(CommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfrica).COMESAmembers

canfreelybuyandselltheircommoditiestoanymemberstate.

• These trade partnerships allow Kenya to freely export its agricultural produce at

competitiveratestherebyearningforeignexchangeandboostingtheeconomy.

4. Government policy

• The government policies play a major role in the success of Agriculture. • The

governmenthasdevelopedpoliciestogovernandregulatetheproduction,marketing,

anddistributionofagriculturalproduce.Thesepolicieshelptosafeguardtheinterests

offarmersaswellasthoseofconsumers.

• Forinstance,thegovernmentcansubsidisefarminputstomakethemaffordableto

farmers.

• The government  has also enacted land policy where production in some areas is

controllede.g.forests,alongriverbanks,etc.

• Onmarketinganddistribution,thegovernmenthassetupmanystatutoryboardsby

various Acts of Parliament, e.g. National Cereals Produce Board, Tea  Board  of

Kenya,CoffeeBoardofKenya,e.t.c.Theseboardsundertakemarketingforspecic

farmproduceandarecloselymonitoredbythegovernment.

• The government plays amajor role in controlling theoperations of marketing co-

operatives,thusdeterminingthelevelofprots.

• Thegovernmentsetstaxlevelsforincometaxandonimports.

• Hightaxationon importedagriculturalproduce protectslocalagricultural products

from undue competition. However, with the emergence of  trade blocs, such as,

COMESAandtheEastAfricaCommunity,highimportationtaxationmaynotbe

sustainable as this will deny Kenya’s agricultural produce entry on the common

markets.

5.Transport and communication

Whilemostagriculturalproductiontakesplaceinruralareas,theconsumptionpointsare

usuallyurbancentresorforeignmarkets

(i) Itisthereforeofcrucialimportanceforthecountrytodevelopgoodinfrastructure

tofacilitateeasyandquickaccesstothemarkets.Mostagriculturalproductsare

perishableandneedtoreachthemarketsquicklyandingoodcondition.

(ii) Roads from farms to distribution and marketing points should be accessible

throughouttheyear.Preferably,theyshouldbemurramorallweatherroads.

• Bulkyproduce,suchas,potatoesandmaizeshouldbetransportedbyrail.

• Trainshavealsobeeneffectiveinthetransportationoflargeherdsoflivestock.

• Waterwaysalsoplayamajorroleinexportingagriculturalproducetoothercountries.

• Airwaysarealsoveryusefulforexportingperishablecommodities,e.g.freshowers

 andvegetables.

(iii) Good marketing also requires proper communication between consumers and

farmers.Thefarmersneedtoknowthemarketpricesinvariousmarketsinorder

todecidethebestmarkettoselltheirproduce.Theconsumersalsoneedadequate

informationonwhatisavailableinthemarketandonthesellingprices.

• Thiscallsforefcientmeansofcommunication.

• Theprintandelectronicmediaplayamajorroleinagriculturalmarketing.

• Quickmeansofcommunicationincludetheinternet,telephoneande-mail.

• Theintroductionofthemobilephonehasalsomademarketingofagriculturalproduce

quiteeasyasoneisabletocommunicateanywhereandatanytime.

6. Cultural practices and religious beliefs

 Kenyansare of diverse ethnic, cultural,and religious backgroundswhichinuence

agricultureinvariousways,suchas:

(i). Somereligionsabstainfromconsumingcertainfoods,forinstance,Hindusdo

noteatbeef,Muslimsdonoteatpigmeat,etc.

 Thisinturnaffectstheagriculturalproductionandmarketing

 ofcertainproducts.

(ii). Somecommunitiesbelieveinthequantityoflivestockandnotnecessarilyinthe

qualityasthisisconsideredasignofwealth.Thisinturnaffectsthequalityof

livestockproducts.

(iii). Somecommunitiespracticecertaintypesoffarmingexclusively.

 For example, communities whose diet comprises of mainly meat, milk and

blood,maynoteasilypracticearablefarming.

Fig. 2.2: A trailer transporting goods

Fig. 2.1: A cargo train in transit

7. Market forces

 • Marketforcesdeterminethepriceofcommoditiesasdictatedbyforcesofdemand

andsupply.

• Supplyreferstotheamountofgoodstheproducersareableandwillingtoavail

toconsumersataparticularperiodoftimewhiledemandreferstotheamountof

commoditytheconsumersarewillingandabletopurchaseatagivenprice.

 • Betteragriculturalproducepricesmotivatefarmerstocontinuewithproductionas

theyareabletorealisegoodprots.

 • Occasionally,thegovernmentstepsintoregulateproduceprices,especiallyfor

maizeandsugar.

 • This cushions farmers against  serious losses in the event of crop failure or

unprotableproduction.

 • Amajorquestionacommercialfarmerhastoaskwhendecidingonthechoice

ofenterpriseiswhetherornotthereissufcientmarketandgoodpricesforthe

produce.

Biotic factors inuencing agriculture

 • Bioticfactorsrefertoallthelivingorganismsthatinhabitanenvironment.Living

organismshavealotofinuenceonagriculturalproductioninareaswherecrop

andlivestockproductioniscarriedout.Thebioticfactorsinuencingagriculture

include pests, parasites, decomposers, pathogens, predators, pollinators, and

nitrogen-xingbacteria.Numberingthesepestsisgood.

1. Pests

Apestisanorganismwhichcausesdamagetoagriculturethroughfeedingoncropse.g.

thebollweeviloncotton.Insectsformthelargestandmostdestructivegroupofpeststo

crops.

Pestslower cropyields byeatinguptheproduceinthe elde.g. armyworms destroy

cropsbyeatinguptheirleaves.BirdslikeSudandiochcauseextensivedamageoncereals

(e.g.wheatandsorghum).Elephants,wildpigsandantelopeswhichcausegreatdamage

tocropslikemaizeinthefarmarealsoexamplesofanimalpests.Someinsectpestse.g.

aphids,transmitviraldiseasesfromonecropplanttoanother.

Cropsattackedbypests,areloweredinqualityandquantityandthereforetheyfetchelow

pricesinthemarket.Pesticidesarechemicalsusedtocontrolpestsandincreasesthecost

ofproductionandalsocontributetowardsenvironmentaldegradation.

2. Parasites

Aparasiteisanorganismthatlivesinoronaanotherorganism,calledahost,usually

causing it some harm. Parasites are dependent on the host for some or all of their

nourishmentandshelter.

Therearetwomajorcategoriesofparasiteswhichaffectlivestock:

Ectoparasites External parasites.Theseareparasiteswhichliveontheoutersurfaceof

theirhosts.Theymayfeedandliveonthehostorbiteandyaway.Examplesinclude:

ticks,keds,mites,easandtsetseies.

(a) Mite (b) Tsetse y

Fig. 2.3: Parasitic insects

Endoparasites Internal parasites:Theseareparasiteswhichliveinsidethebodyofthe

host. Examples are roundworms atworms tapeworms and liver ukes. These worms

usuallyliveintheintestines,lungs,liverorotherinternalorgansoftheirhosts.

Effectsofparasitesonlivestock:

• Theylowerthequalityofproducts,suchas,hidesandskin.

• Theytransmitdiseasese.g.tsetseiestransmittrypanosomiasis,tickstransmitEast

CoastFever.

• Theycauseanaemiainanimalsduetoexcessivesuckingofbloodwhichcanleadto

death.

• Underheavyinfestation,endoparasitescauseobstructionoftheintestineandcause

theanimalstobecomeemaciated.

• Parasites increase the cost of livestock production due to expensive control, thus

reducingtheprot.

• Theyaffectdistributionoflivestockinvariouspartsofthecountrysuchthatareasthat

areheavilyinfestedwithparasitesarerenderedunsuitableforlivestockproduction

e.g.LambweValleyinSubadistrict.

3. Decomposers

Theseareorganismsthatconsumedeadorganisms,andindoingso,carryoutthenatural

processofdecomposition,releasingnutrientsintothesoil.Theprimarydecomposersare

bacteriaandfungi.

Decomposersplayanimportantroleinsoilformationwheretheypromotesoilfertility.

They also help in promoting clean  environment as they decompose and destroy

biodegradablematerialsi.e.deadanimalandplantremains.

4. Pathogens

Pathogens are biological agents that cause disease in both plants and animals. They

include particular species of fungi and bacteria,viruses and protozoa. Pathogens have

adverseeffectsonagriculturalproduction.

Effects of diseases on agriculture

• Diseasesreduceyieldsincropsandlivestock.

• Theyreducethequalityoffarmproducee.g.leafspotsonleavesofkales,spinach,

cabbagesandonfruits.

• Leadtofailureofcropse.g.blightinpotatoescausescompletescorchingofplants.

Inanimals,diseasessuchasEastCoastFever,anthraxandrinderpestcancausemass

deathincattle.

• Theyincreasethecostofproductioninanefforttocontrolthediseases.

• May induce toxic substances on crop produce making them poisonous for human

consumptione.g.aatoxinincereals is caused by Aspergillus avus fungi.

5. Predators

Theseare mainly large animals  which feed  on other living organisms. They play an

important economic  role in agriculture. Some predators are benecial to farmers e.g.

the lady bird beetle eatsup aphids in a cropeld;wasps control mealybugs in coffee

plantations.

Mostpredatorsare,however,harmfultoagriculturalproduction.

• Mongooseareseriouspredatorsonpoultry.Hawksandeaglesareequallyathreatfor

birdsrearedinfreerangesystemofpoultryproduction.Inpastoral-nomadism,wild

animalslikeleopardsandlionshavebeenknowntokillandeatlivestockincurringa

lotoflossestothepastoralists.

6. Pollinators

Theseareorganismswhichaidinpollination,i.e.inthetransferofpollengrainsfromthe

anthertothestigmaofaower.Inagriculture,pollinationisapre-requisitetofertilization.

Crosspollinationalsoencourageshybridvigourwhichimprovesqualityoftheproduce.

Themostrecognisedpollinatorsarebees.Butteriesandmothsalsopollinatetoasmall

degree. Bats are important pollinators of some tropical owers. Birds, particularly

hummingbirds,honeyeatersandsunbirdsalsoaccomplishmuchpollination,especially

ofdeep-throatedowers.Monkeys,lemurs,possums,rodentsandlizardsalsopollinate

someplants.

Asthesepollinatorsgolookingfornectar,pollensticksontheirbodies,andwhenthey

movetoanotherower,theydepositthepollen.Theirpresenceinanenvironmentwill

thereforedeterminetherateofpollination,thusinuenceseedandfruitformation.

7. Nitrogen xing bacteria

Nitrogenxationistheprocessbywhichnitrogenistakenfromitsnaturalform(N

) in

theatmosphereandconvertedintonitrogencompounds(suchasammonia,nitratesand

nitrogen dioxide) useful for other chemicalprocesses.Nitrogen-xing bacteria help to

convertfreenitrogenintheairtonitrates.Nitrogenisveryimportantforgoodgrowthin

cropsandisonlyabsorbedinformofnitrateionsorammoniumions.

Thesebacteriaareeithersymbioticorfreelivinginthesoil.Anexampleofsymbiotic

bacteria is Rhizobium spp which lives  in the root nodules of legumes such as beans,

clovers and peas. Free-living bacteria include Azotobacter which convert atmospheric

nitrogenintoammoniawhichinturnforms nitrates. Nitrogen-xing bacteria therefore

playanimportantroleinenrichingthesoilwithnitrates.

Climatic factors inuencing agriculture

Climatereferstoweatherconditionsofaparticularplacewhichhavebeenobservedand

recordedforaperiodofoverthirtyyears.Itistheaverageatmosphericconditionofa

place.Theweatherelements(conditions)consideredarerainfall,temperature,wind,light

andrelative humidity.These factorsareamongthe majordeterminants of successful

agriculturalproductionofagivenareainmostcountries.

Rainfall

• Rainfallprovideswaternecessaryforanyformoflife.

• Plantsrequirewaterforvariousprocessese.g.forphotosynthesis.

• Lackofwatermayleadtowiltingandsubsequentdeathoftheplants.

• Waterisalsoamajorcomponentofplantcellsmakingthemturgid.Inanimals,water

isimportant forbiochemicalreactions andfordigestion. Lackofwater inanimals

mayresultindehydration and indigestion.

Therearefouraspectsofrainfallwhichaffectagriculturalproductionnamely:amount,

distribution, reliability and intensity ofrainfall.

Rainfall amount

Thisreferstothequantityofrainreceivedinanareaforaperiodofoneyear.Rainfall

amountismeasuredinmillimetresperannum(i.e.mm/p.a).Araingaugeisusedtorecord

theamountofrainfall.Itisthroughaddingthesevolumesforallthedaysinayearthat

annualrainfallamountiscalculated.Waterrequirementscropswillbediscussedincrop

productionform31.

Theamountofrainfalldeterminesthecropsgrowninanarea.Italsodetermineshowwell

aplantgrows.(RefertoFigure2.4and2.6).

Fig. 2.4: Rainfall distribution in Kenya

Rainfall distribution

Thisreferstothespreadofrainfallovertheyear.InKenya,rainfalldistributionisvery

poor,i.e.itisnotevenlydistributed.Insomemonthsthereistoomuchrainfall,whilethe

restoftheyearcanbedry.KenyareceiveslongrainsinMarch/Aprilandshortrainsin

October/Novemberwhilemostoftheothermonthsaredry.

Rainfalldistributiondeterminesthetypeofcropgrown,ascropssuchasvegetablesrequire

rainfallthroughoutthegrowingperiod.Cropssuchasrice,wheatandcottonrequireadry

spellduringtheharvestingperiod.

Rainfall intensity

Thisreferstothestrengthwithwhichrainfalls.Intensityofrainfallismeasuredinterms

ofamountofrainfallperhour(mm/hr).

Highrainfallintensityischaracterisedbyheavystormsandcandestroycrops.Italsohas

higherosivepowercausinglossoftopsoil.Farm structures and infrastructure are also

occasionallydestroyedbyheavydown pours.Landslides, especiallyinhillycultivated

areas, are common during high intensity rainfall. In Kenya, Murang’a and Nyambene

areasarenormallyaffectedbylandslidesduringlongrainseasons.

Rainfalloflow intensity is preferred as itimproveswaterinltrationinto the soil and

causeslesssoilerosion.

Rainfall reliability

Thisreferstothecertaintywithwhichagivenamountofrainisexpectedinagivenplace.

Inreliability,afarmerconsidersthelikelihoodofreceivingrainfallataparticulartimeof

theyear.

Kenyahasanunreliablerainfallpattern.Whenrainsareexpectedtofallinmid-March,

theyend up startingaslate asApril,or failtotally.This affects timeofplanting, land

preparationandharvesting.Rainfallreliabilityalsoaffectstiminginlivestockproduction

e.g. sheep mating is timed to coincide with  plenty of pastures available during rainy

seasons.Farmersrelyonrainfalltogrowoff-seasoncropssuchasvegetablessoastofetch

goodmarketpricesfortheirproduce.

Temperature

This refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of a place. It is measured in degrees

Celcius(ºC)usingathermometer.Temperatureisinuencedbyaltitudeandtopography.

Temperature decreases with increase in altitude, such that for every300 metre rise in

altitudeabovesealevel,temperaturedecreasesby1.7ºC–2.2ºC.Inshadedpartsonhilly

grounds,thereislittlesunraysreachingthesurfaceandthisreducestemperature.

Eachcrophasatemperaturerangewithinwhichitcangrow.Thisisreferredtoasthe

cardinal range of temperature. For crops to grow well and produce high yields, they

require a narrower temperature rangewithin this cardinal range. This isreferred to as

optimum range of temperature.

Thelowesttemperatureatwhichacropcansurviveiscalledtheminimum temperature,

whilethehighesttemperatureiscalledthemaximum temperature.Theoptimumrangeof

temperatureforcoffeeis7.2ºC-26.7ºC.

Fig 2.5: Map showing cattle distribution in Kenya

Effects of temperature on Agriculture

• Germination and growth rate of crops depend on prevailing temperature. At high

temperatures,growthisfasterthanatlowtemperatures.

• Animalsfeedmoreatlowertemperaturesthusaffectingtheirproduction.

• Livestockdistributionisdependentonareatemperature.Somelivestocke.g.Jersey

and Boran can survive in relatively high temperatures, while Friesian cattle and

Merinosheepwilldowellinlowtemperatureareas.

• Temperatureandaltitudealsoaffectthequalityofsomecropproducee.g.pyrethrin

concentrationinpyrethrumincreaseswithdecreaseintemperature,while,sweetness

inpineappleincreasesinlowaltitude,wheretemperaturesarehigh.

• Hightemperaturescausewiltingincrops,especiallywherewaterlevelsarelow.

• Most fungal diseases in plants are also inuenced by temperature. At lower

temperature,thereisahigherincidenceofdiseases,e.g.thepotatoblightandCoffee

BerryDisease.

• Temperatureaffectsdistributionofcrops.Certaincropsdowellinhightemperature

areas,whileothersdobetterinlowtemperatureareas.

Fig. 2.6: A map of Kenya showing major crops distribution in the country

Effects of altitude on Agriculture

Kenyaisdividedintothreeecologicalzonesbasedonaltitude.Theseare:

Lowaltitudezones:0–1500mabovesealevel.

Mediumaltitudezones:500–2500mabovesealevel.

Highaltitudezones:Above2500mabovesealevel.

Cropsperformdifferentlywhengrownineachoftheseecologicalzonesandtherefore

eachcrophasitsmostsuitablezoneformaximumperformance.Example:teagrowswell

inhighaltitudeareaswhereascerealcropsdowellinmediumorlowaltitudesareas(See

Fig2.6).Dairycattlebreeds(exoticbreeds)performwellinhighaltitudeareas.

Wind

Windisairinmotion.Thedirectionofwindisshownonaninstrumentcalleda wind

gaugewhereasthespeedofwindismeasuredusingananemometer.

Effects of wind on agricultural production:

• Strongwindacceleratessoilerosion.Thisisparticularinbarelandwithloosesoil.It

carriesawaythetopsoilthusreducingsoilfertility.

• Windactsasanagentofpollination.Ithelpsintransferringpollengrainsfromthe

malepartofowertothefemalepartofthesameordifferentower.Italsohelpsin

seeddispersal.

• Windinuencestheevapo-transpirationrate.Evapo-transpirationisacombination

of evaporation (the loss  of water from the ground in form of water vapour), and

transpiration ( the loss of water from the plants through the stomatal openings).

Windyareasexperiencehighevapo-transpirationrateswhichmayleadtowiltingof

cropswhenthereisinadequatesupplyofsoilmoisture.

•Cropssuchasbananasandtea,havedelicateleaveswhicharepronetodestructionby

wind,whileothers,suchasmaizecanbelodgedbystrongwinds.Suchcropshaveto

beshelteredfromwindsorsupportede.g.proppinginbananas.

• Winds aid in the spread of pathogens (germs) from one animal to another. For

example,footandmouthdisease-causingviruscanbeblownforadistanceof5km

andtransmittedtootheranimals.

• Windsmayalsocausedestructionoffarmstructureswhichareusefulforcropstorage

andforhousinglivestock.

• Fruitcropscanbeadverselyaffectedi.e.prematurefalloffruits.

• Windalso,carriesawayorbringsrainbearingcloudstoanarea.

• Windaidsinthespreadofcroppestse.g.aphidsincoffeeplantation.

Relative humidity

Humidityreferstotheamountofmoistureintheair.Whenairholdsmaximummoisture,

wesayitissaturated.Airusuallyholdsacertainamountofmoistureataparticulartime.

Whenthisiscomparedtosaturatedair,wegetwhatisreferredtoasrelative humidity.

Relative humidityistheamountofwaterintheatmosphereinrelationtotheamountof

waterthattheaircanholdwhenitisfullysaturated.

Light

Lightisthesourceofenergywhichplantsrequireforphotosynthesis.Duringphotosynthesis,

plantsmanufacturefoodusingwaterandcarbon(iv)oxideinthepresenceofsunlightand

chlorophyll.

Water+Carbon(iv)oxide

Sunlight

Carbohydrate+Oxygen

O+6CO

Chlorophyll

C

+6O

Aspectsoflightconsideredare:lightintensity,lightduration,andlightwavelength.

Light intensity

Thisisthestrengthofsunlightreachingtheearthsurface.Lightisabsorbedbychlorophyll

andusedtobreakupwaterintooxygenandhydrogenduringtheprocessofphotosynthesis.

Thenumberofwatermoleculesbrokenwillthereforedependonthestrengthoftheradiant

energyfromthesunlight,whichaffectstherateofphotosynthesis.

Therateofphotosynthesisincreaseswithincreaseinlightintensityuptotheoptimum.

Lightintensitycanbeincreasedthroughpruning,thinning,weedcontrolandtrellisingof

passionfruitsinanEast-Westdirection.Shading,however,reducestheamountoflight

reachingplants.Materialsusedingreenhouseshavethecapacityofaccumulatinglight

intensity,therebyhasteningthegrowthofhorticulturalcrops.

Light duration

Thisisalsoknownasphotoperiodism.Itreferstotherelativelengthsoflightanddark

periodsina24-hourday.Lightdurationaroundtheequator isusually12hours,but it

variesfartheraway.Differentplantsrequirevaryinglengthsoflightdurationtoower.

Consequently,therearethreecategoriesofplants:

• Longdayplants:Theserequire13–15hrsoflightperdaytoower.Examplesare

wheatandbarley.

• Shortdayplants:Requirelessthan12hoursoflighttoowere.g.tobacco,rice,soya

beans,kales,spinach,etc.

• Dayneutralplants:Theseplantsowerirrespectiveofthenumberoflighthoursi.e.

theyarenotdependentonlightperiods.Examplesaremaize,beans,tomatoes,etc.

Thenumberofhoursofsunshineisrecordedusingacampbell sunshine recorder.

Light wavelength

Thisreferstothequalityoflight.Plantsonlyabsorbnaturallightbutnotarticiallight.

The sun rays received by plants are absorbed at certain wavelengths. Ultraviolet light

and infra red lightare absorbed by chlorophyll. Thepresence of these sun raysaffect

photosynthesis whichinturninuencesplantgrowth.

Edaphic factors inuencing agriculture

Edaphicfactorsarealsoknownassoil factors.Soilisthatnaturalmaterialcoveringthe

earth’ssurfaceonwhichplantsgrow.

Importance of soil:

• Providesanchoragetoplantsbyholdingtheirrootsrmly.

• Providesplantswithminerals/nutrientswhicharenecessaryfortheirgrowth.

• Providestheplantswithwater.

• Containsoxygennecessaryforseedgerminationandusefulforhousingsoilmicro-

organismsthataidindecomposition.

Soil formation

Soilformationor genesis takes place during aprocesscalledweathering. Weathering

isthebreakingdownandalterationofparentrocksneartheearth’ssurfacetoformsoil.

Weatheringinvolvesacombinationofprocesses.Ittakesseveralhundredyearsfor1cm

ofsoiltoform.Weatheringprocessstartswiththebreakdownoflargebedrocksinto

smallerparticlescalledrockfragments,usuallyreferredtoasweatheredrocks.Atthe

siteofdepositionofrockfragments,plantandanimalremainsmixwithrockparticles.

Decomposedplantandanimalremainsprovidetheorganicmatternecessarytobindthe

soilparticlesintocomplexsoilstructures.

Therearethreeformsofweatheringnamely:physical, biological and chemical weathering.

Physical weathering

Thisinvolvesthedisintegrationofrocksintosmallerfragmentsbyphysicalagents,such

as,runningwater,snowandice,windandtemperature.

• Raindropshitthegroundwithhighintensitymakingrockparticlestobreakupfurther.

• Runningwatercarriessmallstoneswhichhitagainsteachotheralongtheriverbedor

onthegroundsurfaceresultinginfurtherbreakingoffandwearingofrockparticles.

Oncetheparticlesaresmallenough,theyaredeposited.

• Freezingwateror ice settles in rockcrevices.Whenwater freezes, it expands and

increasesinvolume.Thiscausespressuretobuild-upfromwithin thecracks,thus

widening the crevices which eventually cause the rocks to  break up into smaller

fragments. This normally happens in high altitude or temperate regions where

temperaturesgobelow0ºC.

• Windhastheabilitytoliftandcarrytherockparticles.Theseparticleshitvarious

obstaclesandbreakintosmallerfragments.

Fig. 2.7 (i): A rock developing a crack

due to the direct heating of the sun

Fig. 2.7 (ii): Wind blowing soil

particles away

• Temperatureplaysamajorroleinphysicalweathering:

- Rocksaremadeupofmineralswithdifferentexpansionrates.

 Whenitishot,theyexpandandcontractwhenitiscold.Thiscausestherocksto

splitandbreakup.

- Thealternateheatingandcoolingofrocksbringsaboutexpansionandcontraction

of rocks causing the rock surface to peel off. This normally happens in areas

whichexperiencehighdaytemperaturesandextremelylownighttemperatures.

Thistypeofrockdisintegrationisalsoknownasonion weathering.

Biological weathering

Thisinvolvestheactionoflivingorganisms,suchasplantsandanimals.Livingthings

bringaboutalterationandbreakingdownofrocksinanumberofways:

• Burrowinganimalse.g.termitesandmolesbringsoilparticlestothesurfaceexposing

themtootheragentsofweathering.

• Biganimalslikeelephant,camelandcattleexertalotofpressureontherocksasthey

steponthemduetotheirheavyweightscausingtherockstodisintegrate.

• Earthwormstakepartindecompositionofplantremains,bringingaboutthemixing

oforganicmatterwiththesoilparticles.

• Man’s activities like miningand quarrying expose rocks tothe surface during the

excavation.Theseactivitiesbreakdownlargerocksintosmallerrockparticles.

• Plantrootsforcetheirwaythroughtherockcrevice.Astherootsgrow,theywiden

cracks which later cause the rocks to split. When the plants die, their roots leave

spaces behind which are occupied bywater and air. Upon decomposition ofplant

roots,aweakacidcalledhumic acid,isformedwhichreactswithrocksweakening

them.

• Whenplantremains,e.g.leaves, decompose, they add  humus to the soilforming

organicmatter.

Fig. 2.8: Construction of roads leading to weathering of rocks.

Chemical weathering

Thisinvolvesachangeinthechemicalcompositionandtheoriginalstructureoftherock.

Waterisessentialforthisprocesstooccur.Chemicalweatheringinvolvesthefollowing

processes:hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation and carbonation.

Hydration

This is the process by which some soluble minerals in the rocks absorb water and

expand.Thisweakenstherockstructures.Therockthusbecomesporousandeventually

disintegratesintosmallersoilparticles.

Hydrolysis

This is the process whereby water reacts with soluble minerals contained in the rock.

Certain rock minerals, e.g. sodium gypsum, dissolve in water causing the whole rock

structuretobecomelooseandbreakupintosmallerparticles,thusleadingtotheformation

ofsoil.

Oxidation

Thisreferstothereactionofrockmineralswithoxygentoformoxidecompoundswhich

easilybreak up. Rocks containing iron mineral are easily oxidised into iron (II) oxide

(redincolour)oriron(III)hydroxide(yellowincolour).Theseoxidesareveryporous,

leadingtothebreakdownoftherocks.

Carbonation

The atmosphere contains a good amount of carbon dioxide. When it rains, the water

dissolvescarbon(iv)oxideformingweakcarbonicacid.

 Water+Carbon(iv)oxide

 Carbonicacid(weak)

O)   (CO

) (H

)

Thecarbonicacidisthenwasheddowntotherocksurfacesorcrackswhereitreactswith

rockscontainingcarbonatesformingsolublecarbonates.

 + CaCO

3

Ca(HCO

)

 carbonicacid calciumcarbonate calciumhydrogen  

  (insoluble) carbonate(verysoluble)

Thechangingoftherocksisnotonlychemical,butisphysicalaswellinthatthenew

productissolubleinwater.

Factors inuencing soil formation

The process of soil formation may either be quickened or delayed by certain factors.

Thesefactorsalsoaffectthequalityandcompositionofthesoil.Factorsinuencingsoil

formationare: climate, biotic factors, parent material, time and topography.

Climate

Thisinuencesthetypeofweathering,thevegetationinanarea,andotheravailableliving

organisms.Thesewillinturnaffectthetypeofsoilformedandhowfastalterationwill

occur.Themajorfactorsinclimatearerainfall,temperatureandwind.Theseinuence

chemicalandphysicalweathering.

Biotic factors

Living things include vegetation cover, micro-organisms, termites, earthworms, etc.

Vegetationinuencesthequalityofsoilformedthroughtheorganicmatterandnutrients

whichitaddstothesoil.Thesedecomposeandhelpinbindingtogetherthesoilparticles.

Thespeedofsoilformationwillalsodependontheextentoferosionwhichischeckedby

vegetationcover.

Livingorganismssuchasearthwormsandtermitesfacilitatethemixingoftopsoilwith

thesubsoilastheybuildmounds.Thesechangesvarysoilpropertiese.g.drainageand

aeration.Theamountofnutrientsinthesoilwilldependonthepresenceofnitrogen-

xingbacteria.

Parent rock

Thequalityofsoil formed is very dependent onthetypeofparent rock material. The

mineralcomposition of the parent rock determines the mineral constitution of the soil

formedandtheresultingsoiltype.Parentrockmaterialwithgraniteandquartzminerals

contributetosandysoils.Thosewithvolcanicmaterialsleadtoclaysoils.Themineral

constituentsinasoilinturninuencethetypeofvegetation.

Topography

Onsteepslopes,erosionisprevalentresultinginformationofshallowsoils.Thecarrying

awayofsoilparticlesdowntheslopeisthroughaprocesscalledmass wasting.Thishas

resulted in high fertility zones like the mineral-rich Muhoroni sugarcane zone, whose

soilsoriginatefromNandihills.Topographythereforeinuencesformationofdeepsoils

orshallowsoils.Deepsoilsaremostsuitableforagriculturalproduction.

Time

Soil formation is as a result of accumulated changes in the parent rock material. The

longerthetimetheweatheringprocesstakesplace,themorematureordevelopedthe

soilbecomes.Wellmaturesoilshavegoodsoilstructuresandarelesseroded,whilesoils

formedoverashortperiodoftimetendtobeshallowandhavealessstablesoilstructure.

Soil prole

Soilprolereferstotheverticalarrangementofdifferentlayersofsoilfromtheground

surface to the bedrock. These layers are also called horizons and are very distinct,

especiallywherethesoilformingprocesshastakenplaceoveralongperiodoftime.

The layers show differences in their contents and physical properties e.g. colour and

texture.Onecaneasilyobservethis(differentlayers)whenaverticalsectionofsoilisdug

duringroadconstructionorwhendiggingpits.

ThelayerscanalsobeidentiedasA,B,CandDstartingfromthetopsoil.Theselayers

graduallymergeintoeachother,otherthanhavingadistinctlinebetweenthem.Thearea

foundwheretwolayersmergeiscalledthetransitional zone.

Parent (unweathered) rock (D)

Supercial layer

Topsoil (A)

Subsoil (B)

Weathered rocks (C)

Fig. 2.9: Soil prole

Supercial layer

Thisistherstlayerofthesoilfoundonthesurface.Itiscomposedofleavesandother

plantremainsatvariousstagesofdecomposition.Duringlandpreparation,thesematerials

areploughedintothesoiladdingorganicmattertothesoil.

Topsoil

Thisistherstlayeroftruesoil.Ithasadarkcolourduetothepresenceofhumus.Itis

richinnutrientsandwellaerated.Itissubjecttoleachingi.e.thedownwardmovement

ofdissolvedminerals.Itisverythickinsomeareasbutthininothers.Micro-organisms

arealsofoundheresincethelayeriswellaerated.Mostoftheplantrootsarefoundhere.

Subsoil

Thislayeris beneath the topsoil.Itis more compact andlessaeratedthan the topsoil.

Mineralsaltscarrieddownfromtopsoilthroughleachingaredepositedinthiszone,giving

itthename“layerofaccumulation”.Somedeeprootedcropswillhavetheirrootsgrowing

uptothisregion.Thelayeriscomposedoflargersoilparticlesandislighterincolour

thanthetopsoil.Wherethesubsoilisnotwellcultivatedoritiscultivatedwhenwetusing

heavymachinery,hardpanscanbeformedinit.Hardpansarehardimpermeablelayers

thatcanbebrokendownduringlandpreparationthroughaprocesscalledsubsoiling.

Weathered rocks

Thisisthethirdlayerfromthetop.Itiscomposedofweatheredrocksbrokendownfrom

parentrockmaterial.Rocksinthiszoneareatvariouslevelsofdisintegration.Mostof

thematerialsfoundinthiszoneoriginatefromthebedrockitself.Asonemovesdown

thezone,rockparticlesbecomelargerinsizeastheyarelessexposedtootheragentsof

weathering.

Parent rock

Thislayerisalsoreferredtoassubstratum orbedrock.Thezoneexistsasasolidmass.

Therocksarestillintacti.e.unweathered.Itiscalledparentrockbecauseitisthesource

oftheinorganiccompositionofthesoil.Thewatertableisonthesurfaceofthisrock.The

nutrientcontentsofsoildependonthemineralconstitutionoftheparentrock.Thecolour

ofthesoilisalsodeterminedbytheparentrock.

Soil depth

The distance between the topsoil layer and the bottom layer of a proleis called soil

depth.Deepsoilsaremoresuitableforcropgrowingastheycontainmorenutrientsand

largermediumforrootpenetration.

Inuence of soil depth on crop productivity

• A deep soil contains more nutrients and organic matter necessary for good crop

growth.

• Deepsoilsprovidegoodmediumforrootgrowthandsupport,asopposedtoshallow

depthwhererootsarenotabletopenetratedeep,thusthecropplantsareeasilylodged.

• Good soil depth facilitates good drainage and aeration. These properties of soil

inuencewaterinltrationandthewaterholdingcapacityofsoils.

• Deepsoilsdiscouragesoilerosionandsurfacerun-off.Thisisasaresultofinltration

ofwaterintolowerdepths.

Difference between soil formed in situ and deposition

Soilcanbeformedinthesameplaceandremainthere.Suchsoilissaidtobeformedin

situ.However,soilcanalsobeformedduetodepositionofsoilparticlesbroughtfrom

itsoriginalsiteofformationtoanewarea.Suchsitesofdepositionarenormallyinlower

groundarease.g.valleysordowntheslopes.Suchsoilsaresaidtohavebeenformedby

deposition.

The two types of soil formation vary in a number of ways:

• Soilformedinsituhasthecolouroftheparentrockwhilethatformedbydeposition

hasthecharacteristicsofwhereitcamefrom.

• Soilsformedinsituareshallowerthanthoseformedbydeposition.

• Soilsformedinsituarelessricherinnutrientsthandepositedsoils.

• Becauseofbeingshallow,soilsformedinsituareeasilyerodedascomparedtothose

bydeposition.

• Depositedsoilsarealsomoresilty.

• Soilsformedinsituhavethesamechemicalcompositionasthatoftheunderlying

parentrock,whilesoilsformedbydepositionmaydifferinchemicalpropertiesfrom

theunderlyingparentrock.

Soil constituents

Soilismadeupofvecomponentsnamely:

• Inorganicconstituentsi.e.mineralmatter.

• Organicmatter(humus).

• Livingorganisms.

• Water(moisture).

• Air(gases).

Soil analysisrevealsthecompositionofmineralmatter,organicmatter,livingorganisms,

waterandair.

1. Mineral matter

• These are inorganic compounds which arise from disintegration of rocks. They

formtheskeletonorframeworkofthesoil,provideanchorageofplants

• mineralsnecessaryforpropergrowthoftheplantse.g.calcium,sulphur,potassium,

etc.Mineralmatterconsistsofsand,siltandclayreferredtoasfractionswhichvary

insize.Theyareclassiedaccordingtotheirdiameters.

Experiment to show that soil contains mineral matter of different sizes

Separation of mineral matter

Themineralmatterismadeupofparticlesofdifferentsizes.Thesecanbeseparatedby

twomethods:

• thesievemethodandthesedimentationmethod.

• sedimentationmethod.

Sieve method

Apparatus:Samplesofgardensoil,4sievesofdifferentsizes,measuringcylinder.

Procedure

(i) Grindsoiltobreakuplargelumps.

(ii) Putthesoilinaseriesofsievesofvariousmeasuredwiremeshandshakevigorously.

(iii) Thesizesofholesonthesievesare:0.002mm,0.02mm,0.2mm,

 2mm.

Results

sieve: Coarsesandretained,butnesand,siltandclaypass

 through.

sieve:Finesandretained,butsiltandclaypassthrough.

sieve: Siltretained,butclaypassesthrough.

sieve: Clayretained.

Fig. 2.10: Sieves meshes of different diameters

2 mm 0.2 mm 0.02 mm 0.002 mm

Sedimentation method

Apparatus:

Gardensoil,250cm

measuringcylinder,sodiumcarbonate.

Procedure

(i) Putsome50ggardensoilina250cm

measuringcylinder.

(ii) Put10gofsodiumcarbonate.Thishelpsdispersetheparticles.

(iii) Add200cm

ofwater.

(iv) Coverthemouthofthecylinderwithhandsandshakethoroughly.

(v) Leavethecontentstostandforaboutanhour.

(vi) Observethesettledlayers.

Observation

TherearevariousfractionsoflayersinthemeasuringcylinderasshowninFig2.11.

These two experiments show that soil is made up of particles of different sizes. The

particlesformthemineralmatter.

Graduated measuring cylinder

Floating organic matter (humus)

Water with ne clay particles and

dissolved mineral salts

Silt and clay fractions

Sand fraction

Gravel fraction

Fig. 2.11: Separation of soil particles

2. Living organisms

Living organisms in the soil include rodents, worms, insects and micro-organisms.

They play an importantrole in soil formation.Arthropods break down organicmatter

astheyfeed.Also,astheorganismsburrowintothesoil,theymixupsoilparticlesthus

acceleratingsoilformation.

• Micro-organisms, e.g. bacteria and fungi, bring about putrefaction and

decompositionthushelpingaddorganicmatterintothesoil.

• Bacteria, like Rhizobium spp and Azotobacter spp carry out nitrogen xation,

addingnitratesintothesoil.Nematodes,however,areparasiticontheplants.Some

nematodese.g.Meloidogyneattackpotatoes,greatlyloweringtheyields.

To show the presence of living organisms in the soil

Alllivingthingsrespire.Duringrespiration,carbon(iv)oxideisproducedasoneofthe

by-products. It is therefore expected that if the soil has micro-organisms, carbon (iv)

oxidewillbe produced.Carbon(iv)oxideistestedusinglimewater,turningitmilky.

Thisformsthebasisofthisexperiment.Forthecontrolexperiment,useburntsoilunder

similarconditions.

Apparatus:Two250cm

conicalasks,rubbercorks,limewater,freshgardensoil,muslin

bags,sourceofheat.

Procedure

(i) PutasampleofthesoilinamuslinbaglabelledAandtieitwithastring.

(ii) Putanequalamountofburntsoilinanothermuslinbagandtieitwithastringand

labelitB.

(iii) Suspendeachmuslinbaginseparateconicalaskscontaininglimewater.

(iv) Corktheconicalaskstightly.

(vi) Leavethesetupfor6–12hours.

Fig. 2.12: Showing presence of living organisms

Rubber

cork

String

Conical

ask

Lime water

Muslin

bag

containing

soil that

has been

burnt

Muslin

bag

containing

fresh

garden

soil

Flask A

Flask B

Observation

Thelime water inconicalask Aturnsmilky, whilethereis no changeinlime water

containedinaskB.Burningkillsthelivingorganismssothereisnoproductionofcarbon

(iv)oxideintheaskwithburntsoil.

3. Soil air

Soilcontainsair.Airisamixtureofgasesnamely:carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen and

inert gases.Airisfoundinthespacesbetweensoilparticles.Theamountofairinthesoil

isinverselyproportionaltotheamountofwateravailableinthatsoil.Ploughingincreases

theamountofairinthesoil.

Importance of air in the soil:

• Airisnecessaryforrespirationofplantsandanimalsinthesoil.

• Nitrogeninthesoilisusedduringnitrogenxation,convertingittonitrates.

• Goodaerationincreasesmicrobialactivitiesinthesoil.

• Goodaircirculationinthesoilisnecessaryasexcesscarbon(iv)oxidemaycause

rottingofplantroots.

To nd the percentage of air in a soil sample

Apparatus:Measuringcylinder,samplesofgardensoil,distilledwater.

Procedure

(i) Put100cm

ofwaterina250cm

measuringcylinder.

(ii) Usinga100cm

beaker,putsoiluptothe100cm

mark.

(iii) Emptythesoilintothemeasuringcylinderandshakewell.Observetheescaping

bubbles.

(iv) Afterallthebubbleshaveescaped,recordthenalreadingofthemixture.

(v) Repeattheexperimentusingsandandclayseparatelyandnotethevolumeofsoil

andwater.

Results

Notethatthelevelofwaterplussoilisbelowtheexpected200cm

mark.Thisisbecause

wateroccupiedthespacesthatairhadoccupiedi.e.theairbubblesseen.

Working out percentage of air composition

Expectedvolume=100cm

+100cm

=200cm

Finalreadingofmixture=xcm

Volumeofairinthesoilsample(y)=(200–x)cm

3

Percentageofsoilair =(

volumeofair

volumeofsoil

x100)%

=

100

x100%

Example 1

Ifthelevelofthemixturewas195cm

,thepercentageofairis:

Volumeofair=(200–195)cm

   =5cm

Percentageofsoilair=

5cm

100cm

x100

 =5%

Conclusion

Airisaconstituentofsoili.e.soilcontainsair.

4. Soil water

Waterisaveryimportantconstituentofsoil.Itsfunctionsinclude:

• As a major component of cell protoplasm, water  provides support  to the plant,

especiallyinherbaceousplantsmakingtheplantcellsturgid.

• Soilwateractsasamediuminwhichplantnutrientsaredissolvedbeforetransportation

uptheplant.

• Waterisessentialforphotosynthesis.

• Transpiration(lossofwater)hasacoolingeffectontheplants.

• Waterisnecessaryformicrobialactivitiesinthesoil.

• Watercreatessuitableconditionsforseedgermination.

Waterexistsinthreeformsinthesoil,i.e.superous, hygroscopic and capillary water.

Superous water

This is the water found between the large space (macropores) in the soil particles. It

isheldtogetherbygravity.Oncethesespacesaresaturatedbywater,thesoilbecomes

waterlogged.Thiswaterisavailabletotheplant.

Hygroscopic water

Thisisthewaterfoundinformofathinlmonthesurfaceofthesoilparticles.Thiswater

isheldtogetherbystrongforcesandso,itisnotavailabletotheplants.

Capillary water

Thisiswaterthatoccupiesthemicroporesinthesoil.Itisheldbystrongadhesionand

cohesionforces.Itisthewaterthatiseasilyavailableandbenecialtoplants.

Experiment to determine the percentage of water in a soil sample.

Apparatus: Weighing balance, evaporating dish, sample of garden soil, tripod stand,

sourceofheate.g.bunsenburner.

Procedure

(i) Weighanevaporatingdish.

(ii) Put50gofsoilsampleontheevaporatingdish.

(iii) Heatthesoilto105ºCoverabunsenburner.

(iv) Stirthesoilasyouheat.Ensureallthewaterhasevaporated.

(v) Removetheevaporatingdishfromtheheatsourceandletitcool.Youmayusea

dessicatorforfastercooling.

(vi) Re-weighthedishwiththeremainingsoil,andrecord.

Soil sample

Stirring rod

Evaporating dish

Wire gauze

Tripond stand

Bunsen burner

Fig. 2.13: Finding the percentage of total water content of soil

Recording and working out

Massofsoilsample =50g

Massofevaporatingdish =xg

Massofdish+soil =(50+x)g

Massofdish+heatedsoil =yg

Massofwater =(50+x)–y=z

Percentagewater =(

x100)%

Example 2

Iftheweightoftheevaporatingdishis20g,andthetotalweightofthedishandheated

soilis62g,massoffreshgardensoilis50g,calculatethepercentageofwaterinthesoil.

Massofevaporatingdish+soil =70g

Massofdish+heatedsoil =62g

Massofwater  =70g–62g

  =8g

Percentagewater  =(

8g

50g

x100)%

  =16%

5. Organic matter

This is an importantcomponent of the soil.It is derived fromthe remains of animals

andplants.Theseremainscontaincarbon.Theremainsfromplantsandanimalsundergo

decompositionandreleasenutrients.Organicmatterhelpsbindthesoilparticlestogether

thus improving their water holding capacity and reducing erosion. The dark colour

of organic matter is due to humus. Humus helps to improve temperatures. Humus is

decomposed organic matter. It is after complete decomposition that organic matter is

released.

To nd the percentage of humus in a soil sample

Apparatus:Evaporatingdish,gardensoilsample,sourceofheat,weighingscale.

Procedure.

(i) Takesomesoilsamplefromthegarden.

(ii) Weigh100gofthesoil.

(iii) Weightheevaporatingdishandrecorditsweight.

(iv) Putthesoilintheevaporatingdish.

(v) Heatoverabunsenburnerto105 ºCtoeliminatethewater.

(vi) Coolitandre-weigh,heatingtothesametemperatureagainuntilaconstantweight

isobtained.

(vii) Nowburnthesoiluntilallthehumusiscompletelyeliminated.

(viii)Coolitandweigh.

Recording and working out

Massofdishalone =xg

Massofdish+drysoil =yg

Massofdish+burntsoil =zg

Massoforganicmatter =y–z

Percentageoforganicmatter

inthesoil =(

y - z

100

x100)%

Example 3

Massofdishalone =30g

Massofdish+drysoil =110g

Massofdish+burntsoil =105g

Massoforganicmatter =110g–105

Percentageoforganicmatter=(110–105x100)%

100

=5x100=5%

100

Physical properties of soil

Soilcanbeclassiedintermsofitsphysicalproperties.Underthisclassication,itcanbe

consideredintermsofsoilstructure,soiltextureandthecolourofthesoil.

Soil structure

Soil structure refers to the physical appearance of the soil in relation to the way the

soil particles are arranged or aggregated. Aggregation is thegrouping ofsoilparticles

together.Soilparticlesarejoinedtogetherbycolloidsandhumus.Thesizesandshapesof

aggregatedparticlesvarygivingrisetovarioustypesofsoilstructures.

Types of soil structure

Soilstructuresincludesingle-grained,crumby,granular,prismatic,columnar,platyand

blockystructures.

Single grained structure

Inthistypeofstructure,thesoilparticlesarenotcementedtogether.Particlesaretinyand

spherical.Thisstructureisnormallyfoundinloosetopsoilsinaridareas.Thistypeofsoil

structureischaracteristicofsandysoils.

Itispronetowinderosionandnotverysuitableforcropproduction.

Fig. 2.14 Single grained structure

individual particles

(very loose)

Crumby structure

A crumby structure consists of tiny, porous aggregatesof irregularshape. Itgives the

rststageofaggregation,fromsingle-grainedstructure,whereafewparticlesarejoined

together.Thisisoneofthebeststructuresforcropproductionasparticlesallowenough

airspace.Thesoilparticlesarelooselyttedtogether.

Fig. 2.15: Crumby structure

A crumby structure made up of

many single grains

Granular structure

Thesearegranulesmadeoffriable,roundedaggregatesofirregularshape.Itisnormally

foundinthetopsoilofcultivatedsoils.Theseaggregatesarelooselypacked,explaining

whythissoilstructureiseasilyaffectedbycultivationandtrampling.Thesoilparticles

lielooselyandarereadilyshakenapart.Thisstructureisfoundinthetopsoilofcultivated

soilandinthesubsoiloflandundergrassorbush.

Fig. 2.16: Granular structure

Sand grain

Humus with clay

Air space

Prismatic structure

Inthisstructure,soilaggregatesarecementedintheformofverticallyorientedpillars.

Theirtopscouldbeshapedinsuchawaythattheyarelevel,planeandcleancut,thus

namedprismatic.

Fig. 2.17: Prismatic structure

Thesearenormallylocatedinthesubsoilhorizonsofaridandsemi-aridsoils.

Columnar structure

Whensoilaggregates(particles)arearrangedverticallybuttheirtopsarerounded,they

arereferredtoascolumnarstructures.Thesecolumnsareverysimilartoprismatic,only

thattheirtopsarerounded.Theyarefoundinsubsoilsofaridandsemi-aridareas.

Fig. 2.18: Columnar structure

Rounded tops

Platy structure

These are soil aggregates that are arranged in horizontal layers known as

plates. The plates overlap each other and thus make such soils poor for crop

production as there is poor root penetration. Plates are commonly found

in forests and in cattle bomas where there is a lot of organic matter. This

structure provides poor aeration of soil which hinders water percolation.

Platy structure is also found in the top of clayey soils, but is mostly

noticeable on the surface layers of virgin soils.

Fig. 2.19: Platy structure

Plates

Blocky structure

Inthisstructure,thesoilaggregatesarearrangedinrectangularblocks.Theblockshave

sixirregularfaces.Theyarenormallyfoundinnetexturedsubsoils.Itisreferredtoas

blockybecausetheedgesofthecubesaresharpandhavedistinctrectangularfaces.

Fig. 2.20: Blocky structure

Inuence of soil structure on crop production

• Thewaterholdingcapacityofthesoilisinuencedbythesoilstructure.

• Soilstructureinuencestheairspacesavailableinthesoil,andtherefore,itsaeration.

• Itinuencesthedrainageofthesoil.

• Rootpenetrationwillhighlydependonthesoilstructure.Structures,suchas,platy

willhinderrootpenetration.

• Inuencemicrobialactivitiesinthesoilduetoincreasedairavailability.

• Itinuencescirculationofgasesinthesoile.g.carbondioxidereleasedbysoilmicro-

organismmustbeexpelledfromthesoilsothatitdoesnotbuilduptotoxiclevels.

Thesefarmingpracticesthatimprovesoilstructure:

• Applicationoforganicmanureintothesoil.

• Tillingofsoilattherightmoisturecontent.

• Croprotationwithinclusionofcropswhichhelpbindsoilparticles.

• Minimumtillage,toavoidoverpulverisationofsoil.

• Covercropping,whichprotectslossofmoisturefromthesoil.

• Mulching,usingorganicmulchingmaterialse.g.drygrass.

• Allowinglandtofallow.

• Soilliming.

• Intercopping,mixedcropping.

Destructionofsoilstructuretakesplacewhenoneusesheavymachineryespeciallyon

wetsoils,ploughingatconstantdepthinallseasonsandovercultivationofsoil.

Soil texture

Soiltexturereferstotherelativeproportionofvarioussizesofmineralparticlesinasoil.

Thecomponentsofsoilmineralmatteraresand,siltandclay.

Theseparticlesvaryinsizes.

Sand:0.02–2.0mmdiameter

Silt:0.002–0.02mmdiameter

Clay:lessthan0.002mmdiameter

Dependingontheproportionsofmineralmatterparticlespresentinthesoil,soilwillbe

neorcoarse-textured.Anetextureisbroughtaboutbyclay,whileacoarsetextureisa

characteristicofsand.Therefore,soiltexturesometimesreferstothefeelofthesoil.

Soil textural classes

Sandy soils

Contain

50–80%sand.

20–50%clay+silt.

0.1–3%organicmatter.

Characteristics

• Verywelldrained.

• Coarsetextured(gritty).

• Moderatelyfertile.

• Lowwaterholdingcapacity.

• Slightlyacidic.

• Lessstablestructure,hencepronetosoilerosion.

• Highlyaerated.

• Lowdensityandlightsoils.

• Lowcapillarity.

Silty loams

Contains

20–30%sand.

70–80%clay+silt.

0.1–4%organicmatter.

Characteristics

• Welldrained.

• Goodwaterholdingcapacity.

• Finetextured.

• Moderatelyfertileandaerated.

• Castformeddoesnotbreakeasily.

Clayey loams

Contain

20–50%sand.

20–60%silt+clay.

0.1–6%organicmatter.

Characteristics

• Finetextured.

• Poorlyaerated.

• Poorlydrained.

• Highnutrientcontent.

• Easilywaterlogged.

• Onlysuitableforoodirrigatedcropse.g.rice.

Clayey soils

Containmorethan40%clay.

Characteristics

• Stickywhenwet.  •Highwaterretention.

• Hardwhendry.  •Crackswhendry.

• Verypoorlyaerated. •Swellswhendry.

• Verypoorlydrained. •Smoothplastice.

• Highfertility.  •Hasnesoilparticles.

• Havehighcapillarity.

• Canbeimprovedbydrainage.

Loamy soils

Contain

30–50%sand.

50–70%siltandclay.

0.1–4%organicmatter.

Characteristics

• Welldrained.

• Moderatelytextured.

• Fertile.

• Goodwaterholdingcapacity.

• Slightlyacidic.

• Easytodig.

• Thesearethebestsoilsforcropproduction.

Inuence of soil texture on crop production

Soiltexturebringsaboutdifferenttexturalclasseswhichaffectcropgrowthbecausethey

differinthefollowingproperties:

• Fertility.

• Organicmattercontent.

• Drainage.

• Aeration.

• Waterholdingcapacity.

• Capillarity.

Thesepropertieshavedirectinuenceontheperformanceofcrops.Forexample,most

cropsgrowwellandproducehighyeildsinfertilesoilswithgoodaerationandproper

drainage.Suchcropsincludemaize, wheat, tobbacco, tea, coffee, horticultural crops,etc.

Experiment to nd out the water holding capacity and porosity of the soil

Apparatus:Measuringjars,funnels,cottonwool,water,sandysoil,claysoil,loamsoil,

stopclock.

Procedure

(i) Drythesoilsamplesinthesun.

(ii) Crushallthesoilsamplesexceptsandysoils.

(iii) Pluglargelterfunnelswithcottonwool.

(iv) Placethethreedifferenttypesofsoilofequalmassesinthefunnels.

(v) Placeeachfunnelinseparatemeasuringcylinders,thenquicklypour20mlofwater

intothefunnels.

(vi) Determinethetimetakenforanyknownvolumeofwatertodrainthrougheachof

thesoiltypesineachmeasuringcylinder.

Findthevolumeofwatercollectedanddeterminetheamount

 ofwaterretainedinallthesetups.

Water

Sandy soil

Ground loam

soil

Powdery clay

soil

Funnel

Cotton wool

Measuring cylinder

Fig. 2.21: To compare porosity and water holding capacity of different soils

Results

After5minutes,waterlevelsinthedifferentmeasuringcylindersvary.

Waterlevelishighestinmeasuringcylinderwithsandy soil,followedbyloamysoil,and

themeasuringcylinderwithclaysoilcontainstheleastamountofwater.

Conclusion

Themostporoussoilissandy soil,followedbyloam soil, and then clayey soil.Clayhas

thehighestwaterholdingcapacity.

Experiment to determine the capillarity of the soil

Apparatus:3longcapillarytubes,cottonwool,drysand,clayandloamsoilswithhigh

percentageoforganicmattercontent,watertrough,clockandaruler.

Procedure

(i) Closeoneendofeachtubewithaplugofcottonwool.

(ii) Crushallsoilexceptsandysoils.

(iii) Filleachcapillarytubewithadifferentsoiltype.

(iv) Supporteachtubewithaclampstandinanemptywatertrough.

(v) Pourwaterintothewatertroughtoadepthof10cm.

(vi) Removethetubesfromthetroughafter5minutesandmeasuretheheightofwater

ineverytube.Thenleavetheapparatusovernightandmeasureagain.Plottheresults

onagraphpaperwiththetime(inminutes)onthex-axisandwaterheight(incm)

ony-axis.

Fig. 2.22: Capillarity rates of different soils

Sandy soil

Loam soil

Clay soil

Cotton

wool

Water

level

Clamp stand

Results

Water rises fastest in sandy and loamy soils but very slowly inclay soil inthe rst 5

minutes.However,afteranovernightstay,thewaterlevelinclaysoilishighestfollowed,

byloamysoil,andnallybysandysoil.

Conclusion

Clayeysoilhas thehighestcapillaritybecauseoftheneporespaces.Loamysoilhas

organicmatterwhichabsorbswaterrelativelyfast.Sandysoilhasthepoorestcapillary

actionbecauseoflargeporespaces.

Soil colour

Thisisdeterminedbythephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofthesoil.Soilcolourisa

physicalcharacteristicofsoilanddependsonthemineralcompositionoftheparentrock.

Forinstance,containingalotofironisbrownish,yellow,reddishororangeincolour.Soils

withalotofsilicaarewhite.Soilswithalotofhumusandlikepeatandlessdecomposed

plantresiduesaredark,grey,greybrownorblackcoloured.Darksoilsabsorbandretain

more heat than lightwhich affect the activityof micro-organisms, making themmore

active,thusacceleratingtherateofdecompositionoforganicmatter.

Chemical properties of soil

Soil pH

SoilpHorsoilreactionreferstotheacidity or alkalinity of the soil solutionorpotential

hydrogen ion concentration in the soil.Thisisachemicalpropertyofsoil.

SoilpHisdeterminedbytheconcentrationofthehydrogenions(H

)orthehydroxylions

(OH

–

)inthesoilsolution.IfthepHislessthan7,thenthesoilisacidic;ifitis7,thenthe

soilisneutral;andifitisabove7,thesoilisalkaline.

ThepHinthesoilcanbeloweredbytheuseofacidicfertilizersandincreasedbyliming

orbyuseofbasicfertilizers.

Inuence of soil pH on crop growth and production

• Itdeterminesthetypeofcroptobegrowninaparticulartypeofsoil.

EachcrophasitsownpHrangewithinwhichitgrowswelle.g.

   Tea4.0–6.0

   Maize6.0–7.0

   Coffee5.3–6.0

   Sugarcane4.2–8.5

   Pyrethrum5.5–6.0

   Bananas5.0–8.0

{

1.2.3.45.6 7891011121314

{

Neutral

Acidic

Alkaline

pH scale

• Most crops are affected byeithervery acidic or very basicsoil pH e.g. barley is

affectedbylowpH.

• SoilpHaffectsthechoiceoffertilizersandtheavailabilityofparticularnutrientsto

cropse.g.whenthesoilpHisbelow5,phosphorusislessavailable,andathighpH

levelsitsavailabilityincreasestotoxiclevels.Thisinterfereswiththenormalgrowth

ofplants.

• AtlowpH,theconcentrationofavailableironandaluminiuminthesoilsolutionmay

increasetotoxiclevels,whichisharmfultotheplants.

• VeryacidicorlowpHinhibittheactivityofsoilmicro-organismse.g.nitrifyingand

nitrogenxingbacteria,affectingthegrowthofleguminouscrops,e.g.beans,etc.

End of Unit 2 Test

1. Listtheclimaticfactorsthataffectthegrowthanddistributionofcropsandlivestock.

2. Denethetermphotoperiodism.

3. Statesixbioticfactorsinuencingagriculture.

4. Statethethreeaspectsoflightthatareimportantforcropgrowth.

5. Whatisthedifferencebetweenweatherandclimate?

6. Statethemostimportantaspectsofrainfallinagivenarea.

7. Outlinethefactorswhichaffectthetemperatureofaplace.

8. Whatisthedifferencebetweenlightdurationandlightintensity?

9. Outlinetheeffectsofwindonfarming.

10. Howdoeslowtemperatureaffectthegrowthandperformanceofcrops?

11. MentionthecharacteristicsofrainfallinKenya.

12. Whatisrelativehumidity?

13. A green house is an example of a controlled environment. Outline any three

environmentalfactorswhicharecontrolledbytheuseofagreenhouse.

14. Denethefollowingterms:

 (a)Soilstructure.(b)Soiltexture.

15. Whatisthedifferencebetweenorganicmatterandhumus?

16. If you dig a hole to a height of 3 m deep and observe its vertical wall, you will

seemanydistincthorizontalsoillayerswithdifferentvisiblecharacteristics,suchas,

colouranddepth.Suchasectioniscalleda…………………whiletheindividual

layersarecalled………………

17. Whatisatransitionalzoneinthesoillayer?

18. Namethethreetypesofsoils.

19. Statevefactorsinuencingsoilformation.

20. Whyaresandysoilsmoreerodiblethantheclayeysoils?

21. Listthefourmaintypesofsoilstructure.

22. Namethefourtexturalclassesofsoil.

23. Describehowbiologicalweatheringtakesplace.

24. Listvesoilconstituents.

25. The degradation of soil organic matter by putrefying bacteria to nutrient through

organicacidsisaprocesscalled…………………

Farm tools and equipment

UNIT 3

Specic objectives

By the end of the topic, I should be able to:

(a) identifyvariousfarmtoolsandequipment

(b) namepartsofvariousfarmtoolsandequipment

(c) describetheuseofvariousfarmtoolsandequipment

(d) carryoutmaintenancepracticesontoolsandequipment

(e) demonstrateanappreciationforcareandmaintenanceoftools

Introduction

There are many operations and tasks that are performed in the farm during

crop and livestock production. Some of these tasks are so complicated that they

cannot be performed by use of mere hands. A farmer therefore needs various

tools and equipment.

Tools are quite simple and are held in the hand as one performs a particular

operation e.g A panga, rake and garden fork. Equipment on the other hand are

more complicated and specic e.g a knapsack sprayer, stir-up pump sprayer,

and chaff cutter.

Reason for maintaining farm tool & equipment

(i) Extended equipment eye

(ii) Decrease in parts replacement

(iii) Improved reliability

(iv)Improved resale value

(v) Greater parts inventory management

(vi) Reduction of breakdown

Why farmers use tools and equipment

• To increase efciency and make farm operations easier, e.g. use of a combine

harvester makes the harvesting of wheat or maize in large scale operation

faster and easier.

• To minimise injuries to livestock e.g. trocar and canular can be used rather

than a knife to relieve cattle of bloat.

• To enhance production, e.g. machine milking will be more

effective than hand milking where one has a large herd of cattle.

Categories of farm tools and equipment

There are ve categories of farm tools and equipment:

• Garden tools and equipment.

• Workshop tools and equipment.

• Livestock production tools and equipment.

• Plumbing tools and equipment.

• Masonry tools and equipment.

Garden tools and equipment

These are all the tools and equipment that a farmer needs for crop production.

From the land preparation, up to the harvesting and post-harvesting practices,

a number of tools are required to carry out most of these activities efciently.

There are also many eld management practices that are done on crops, such

as, pruning, pest and disease control, watering, e.t.c. The effectiveness and

efciency of these practices require the use of appropriate tools.

Panga

It is a long bladed cutting tool whose blades are sharpened on one or both sides.

Fig 3.1: Panga

Handle

Nails

Blade

Uses

A panga is used for:

• Cutting down small bushes, shrubs, weeds.

• Cutting pasture grass to feed to livestock.

• Clearing the land of small trees or shrubs before

cultivation.

• Harvesting certain crops like sugar cane or

during stooking of maize crop.

• Shaping wooden handles of jembes, etc.

Maintenance

• Store properly in the tool store.

• Oil the metallic part to prevent rusting during periods of long storage.

• Repair worn out or broken handle.

• Sharpen when blunt by use of a le.

Axe

This is a garden tool that has a wooden handle and a metal wedge-shaped head.

Fig. 3.2: Axe

Handle

Cutting edge

Uses

It is used for:

• Cutting tree stumps.

• Felling big trees during initial stages of land preparation.

• Splitting of trees into logs for construction of farm structure and rewood.

Maintenance

• Replace worn out handles.

• Oil the metallic part to prevent rusting.

• Store properly in the tool store.

• Sharpen regularly to maintain in it good condition.

Mattock/pick axe

This is a tool that has a wooden handle with a hard curved metal head.

Fig 3.3 (i): Pick axe

Handle

Pointed edge

Axe-like end

Fig 3.3 (ii): Mattock

Pointed edge

Jembe-like edge

Uses

A mattock/pick axe is used for:

• Digging out stones and hard soil.

• Uprooting tree stumps before ploughing.

• Cutting tree roots during land preparation.

• A pick axe will be particularly useful for cutting tree roots during land

preparation.

Maintenance

• Replace the handle when worn out.

• Apply old engine oil on the metallic part so as to prevent rusting.

• Proper storage in the tool store.

• Fix loose handle properly.

Jembe/Hoe

It is a broad-bladed cultivation tool. Jembe and hoe have the same use but

different blade shapes.

Fig. 3.4 (i): Jembe Fig. 3.4 (ii): Hoe

Handle

Cutting edge

Uses

It is used for:

• Cultivation of land when preparing

seedbed and during weeding.

• Digging foundation of farm

structures and buildings.

• Preparing planting furrows and

holes.

Maintenance

• Regular cleaning after use.

• Proper storage in the tool store.

• Oil the metallic part to prevent rusting.

• Sharpen the blade regularly so that it is in good condition.

• Replace any broken handle.

Forked Jembe

This is made up of strong prongs shaped like those of a fork.

Fig. 3.5: Forked Jembe

Handle

Prongs

Uses

It is used for:

• Removing underground

perennial weeds e.g. couch grass.

• Digging hard, stony, wet or

muddy soils.

• Harvesting of tuber crops e.g.

Irish potatoes.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Oil the metallic parts to prevent rusting.

• Replace any broken handle.

• Straighten bent prongs.

Spade

A spade is a tool with a slightly curved blade

with a pointed tip that facilitates penetration

into the soil.

Uses

It is used for:

• Digging, in place of a jembe, e.g. in stony places and in coffee plantations

where use of a jembe can damage coffee roots.

• Removing soil when digging holes and applying manure, etc.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in the tool store.

• Apply oil on the metallic parts to prevent rusting.

• Replace any broken handles.

Wheelbarrow

This is a farm equipment used for transporting small loads like sand,

bags of seeds or seedlings during transplanting, bags of fertilizers, etc.

within a short distance.

Fig. 3.6: Wheel barrow

Handle

Container

Stand

Rubber tyre wheel

Maintenance

• Tighten loose nuts and bolts.

• Grease the wheel/moving parts to

facilitate smooth running of the wheel.

• Apply old engine oil or paint the

metallic part to prevent rusting.

• Proper storage under a tool shed.

• Repair any worn out or broken parts.

Watering can

This is a container with perforations at the end of an elongated mouth piece

through which water is applied to plants in small droplets reaching the ground

with less disturbance of the soil.

Fig. 3.7: Watering can

Handles

Tank

Rose

Perforations

Uses

It is used for:

• Watering seedlings in seed boxes,

potted plants, nursery beds,

transplanted seedlings and seeds.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Paint the body/tank to prevent rusting.

• Remove the rose, un-block the perforations, and then return it in place.

• Proper storage in the tool store.

• Repair leaking tank and any other damaged parts, e.g. the handle.

Spring balance

This is an equipment used for weighing.

It is normally calibrated in kilograms or

grammes. The most common are graduated

up to 50 kg

Reading

scale

Hook for hanging

the produce

Fig. 3.8: Spring balance

Uses

It is used for:

• Weighing farm produce and farm inputs.

Maintenance

• Proper storage in the tool rack.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

• Lubricate the inner springs.

Rake

This is a rigid toothed implement

that is tted to a long handle.

Fig. 3.9: Rake

Handle

Iron teeth

Uses

It is used for:

• Collecting together (removing) uprooted plant roots and stems, rhizomatous

weeds, or previous crop residues, when preparing a nursery bed or seedbed.

• Breaking large soil clods to obtain a ne tilth for tiny seeds.

• Levelling of the seedbed.

• Collecting mowed grass stones and other rubbish from seedbed.

• Raking in organic manures on the seedbed.

Tape measure

It is a measuring, marking, and

lay out tool.

Fig. 3.10: Tape measure

Maintenance

• Oil the metallic parts to prevent rusting.

• Replace any worn out or broken handles.

• Repair any broken or bent teeth.

• Store in a tool store.

Uses

It is used for:

• Measuring distance and length.

Maintenance

• Proper storage in the tool rack.

• Clean the equipment in case it comes into contact with soil.

Soil Auger

Uses

It is used for:

• Soil sampling, i.e. during soil analysis/testing.

• Digging holes for xing fence posts.

Fig. 3.11: Soil Auger

Handle

Drum

Claws

Side

cutters

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

• Sharpen the cutting edge.

• Replace any damaged handles.

Knapsack sprayer

This is normally carried on the back of the user. It

has a capacity of 10, 15, or 20 litres. It has a hand-

operated pump attached to it.

Uses

It is used for:

• Applying agrochemicals such as foliar fertilizers,

herbicides,

or pesticides to crops efciently, economically, and

safely.

Maintenance

• Wash thoroughly after use and keep in a safe place.

• Lubricate the moving parts.

• Remove dirt, soil and small stones from the sieve regularly.

• Unblock the nozzle.

Nozzle

Cap (Lid)

Tank

Handle/

agitating

lever

Lance

Trigger

Lance handle

Delivery hose

Fig. 3.12 (ii): Hand operated knapsack sprayer

Sprinkler

Fig. 3.13: Sprinkler in use.

Uses

It is used for:

• Applying water to crops

in overhead irrigation.

Maintenance

• Unblock the nozzles when blocked.

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a dry place to avoid rusting.

• Repair worn-out or broken parts.

Hose pipe

Uses

It is used for:

• Conveying water from one area to another.

Fig. 3.14: Hose pipe

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool shed.

Garden shear

Uses

It is used for:

• Trimming hedges and shrubs in the farm.

Pivot

Handles

Fig. 3.15: Garden shear

Blade

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

• Grease the moving parts to avoid friction.

• Sharpen the blade regularly.

Pruning Saw

Fig. 3.16: Pruning Saw

Handle

Serrated edge

Blade

Uses

It is used for:

• Pruning perennial crops like

coffee, citrus fruits and pollarding

trees.

Maintenance

• Replace any broken handle.

• Apply oil on the metallic part to

prevent rusting.

• Set the teeth by use of a saw set

so that it is in good condition.

• Store in a tool cabinet.

Meter rule

Fig. 3.17: Meter rule

Uses

It is used for:

• Measuring out distances e.g. when planting to determine spacing or when

marking small plots in the farm.

Maintenance

• Store in a tool cabinet.

• Clean regularly so that it is in good condition.

Secateur

Fig. 3.18: Secateur

Lock

Cutting

blade

Handles

Pivot Soft blunt blade

Uses

It is used for:

• Pruning crops like coffee and cutting owers (Pruning involves cutting

unwanted branches and suckers).

Maintenance

• Replace broken handles and worn out blades.

• Apply oil on the metallic parts to prevent rusting.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

• Grease the pivot.

• Sharpen the edges.

Garden trowel

This is a pointed scoop-like tool.

Uses

• Loosening the soil.

• Digging small shallow holes.

• Lifting out seedlings from the nursery

beds during transplanting.

Fig. 3.19: Garden trowel

Scooping

blade

Ferrule

Handle

Maintenance

• Store in the tool rack.

• Apply old engine oil to prevent rusting.

• Clean after use.

• Replace broken wooden handles.

• Ensure it is rm.

Garden fork

A small pronged tool.

Uses

• Weeding in a nursery or on carrot elds.

• Preparing holes for transplanting seedlings.

Handle

Fig. 3.20: Garden fork

Prong

Maintenance

• Repair any broken handles.

• Store properly in a tool shed.

• Oil the metallic parts to prevent rusting.

Manure fork

This is a long-handle pronged tool.

Uses

• Turning and collecting manure on the farm.

Fig. 3.21: Manure fork

Handle

Prongs

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Oil metallic parts to prevent rusting.

• Straighten bent prongs.

• Replace broken handles.

Pruning Hook

Uses

It is used for:

• Cutting branches of tall trees.

• Pruning crops like tea.

Fig. 3.22: Pruning hook

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Sharpen the cutting blades so that the

tool is in good condition.

• Replace broken handles.

• Clean after use.

Shovel

It resembles a spade but has a tray-like blade.

Uses

• Scooping loose soil, fertilizer, seeds and sand.

Fig. 3.23: Shovel

Handle

Blade

Maintenance

• Replace worn out handles.

• Apply oil on the metallic parts

to prevent rusting.

• Store properly in a dry place.

Levelling Board

Fig. 3.24: Levelling Board

Uses

• Levelling a prepared seedbed especially in rice elds.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

Livestock production tools and equipment

These are tools and equipment used for routine management practices in

livestock e.g. for identication, castration, dehorning, disease and parasite

control, breeding, milking, and restraining animals. They facilitate easy

handling of the livestock thus minimising injuries to livestock and to the stock

handlers.

Elastrator

It is used with a rubber ring for the bloodless castration of males and for de-

budding young animals.

Uses

• To enlarge the rubber ring during castration of small livestock,

• To de-horn livestock.

• For the docking of lambs.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

• Grease the pivot.

Fig: 3.25: Rubber ring elastrator

handle

prong

Pivot

expanded

rubber

ring

Burdizzo

Uses

• For the bloodless castration of

bulls, rams, and billy goats, by

snapping the spermatic cords.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in the tool store.

• Oil the pivot for easy operation.

Fig: 3.26: Burdizzo

Pivot

Handles

Clasps

Syringes and hypodermic needles

This is a set of tools which are used together. Syringes can be made of plastics

or metals.

Fig. 3.27: Syringes and a needle

Needle

Piston

Barrel

Piston

Uses

• For administering injections and for taking blood samples.

• Syringes can be used for administering liquid drugs e.g. vaccines.

• Syringe can be used to infuse antibiotics into the teat canal for prevention

of mastitis.

Thermometer

Uses

• For taking body temperature of livestock by placing it in the rectum for a

given period of time. The thermometer is then removed and the temperature

recorded.

Fig. 3.28: Thermometer

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

• Clean and disinfect after use.

Halter

This is made of a rope, neck, and head strap.

Fig. 3.29: Halter

Uses

• For restraining cattle. It prevents

choking of the animal and ensures

complete control of the animal.

• For leading cattle during exhibitions,

such as, agricultural shows etc.

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool store.

• Replace any worn out parts.

Hoof trimmer

It looks like a burdizzo except

for the sharp jaws and its heavy

size.

Fig. 3.30: Hoof trimmer

Handles

Jaws

Uses

• Cutting or trimming overgrown hooves of livestock e.g. cattle, sheep and

goats.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Sharpen the jaws when blunt.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

Strip cup

Fig. 3.31: Strip cup

Uses

• Detecting mastitis in a cow. Milk from animals with mastitis shows clots

when drops are placed on the black plate. Milk turns to bluish colour.

Maintenance

• Clean after use and disinfect.

• Store properly in a tool shed.

Trocar and canula

This is made up of two parts i.e. the trocar and canula. A trocar is sharp and

pointed, whereas the canula is barrel shaped.

Fig. 3.32: Trocar and canula

Canula

Trocar

Assembled trocar and

canula ready for use

Uses

• To relieve bloat in livestock through piercing the rumen to release gases.

Maintenance

• Store properly.

• Clean and disinfect after use.

Hard broom

Fig. 3.33: Hard broom

Handles

Bristles

Uses

• For washing concrete oors in the dairy shed or livestock houses.

Maintenance

• Store in a tool rack.

• Clean after use.

• Replace any broken handles.

Wool shears

Fig. 3.34: Wool shears

Blades

Handles

Uses

• Clipping or shaving wool in sheep.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

Ear notcher

Uses

• For cutting identication

shapes on the ears of an

animal e.g. in cattle.

Fig. 3.35: Ear notcher

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

• Clean and disinfect after use.

Bull ring and lead stick

It is a special ring that is xed to the nose of a bull. A long stick is attached

to the ring.

Fig. 3.36: Bull restrained by a lead stick

Uses

It is used for:

• Restraining bulls. It gives the handler a safe distance from vicious bulls

which can be dangerous on coming closer to the handler.

Maintenance

• Ensure the pin is rmly xed in the ring.

• Store properly in the tool store.

Milking bucket

Uses

It is used for:

• Holding milk during hand milking.

• Storing milk before consumption or processing.

Fig. 3.37: Bucket

Maintenance

• Clean and disinfect after use.

• Store in a dry place.

Stir-up Pump (bucket pump)

Uses

• Appropriate tool for hand-spraying animals against ticks.

Handle

Trigger

Fig. 3.38: Stir-up Pump

(Bucket pump)

Acaricide

solution

Foot support

Lance

Lance handle

Delivery hose

Nozzle

Gland

Air vessel

Barrel

Maintenance

• Grease the moving parts to avoid friction.

• Check and repair any leakages.

• Replace worn out parts.

• After spraying, ush the pump with a lot of water.

• Dis-mantle the parts and wash thoroughly after use.

Milk churn

Uses

• For storing of milk.

• For transporting milk.

Maintenance

• Clean and disinfect after use.

• Store properly in a dry place.

Fig. 3.39: Milk churn

Lid

Milk strainer/sieve

Pad

Clip

Milk strainer

Handle

Cover

Fig. 3.40: Milk strainer

Uses

• For removing any visible foreign materials from the milk such as dirt and

animal hair.

Maintenance

• Clean and disinfect after use.

• Store properly in the tool store.

Rope

This can be made from sisal or manila.

Fig. 3.41: Rope

Uses

• For restraining livestock.

• For pulling heavy objects, such as, logs of wood.

• For making planting line.

• For tethering small livestock.

Maintenance

• Store in a rainproof structure.

• Clean after use if muddy.

• Do not put on a wet place, especially, the sisal type.

Milking stool

Uses

• For sitting on during milking in the dairy.

Maintenance

• Paint the stool.

• Store properly in a rain proof area.

• Repair broken or loose parts.

Fig. 3.42: Milking stool

Weighing balance

Uses

• For weighing livestock products e.g. milk.

Fig. 3.43: Weighing balance

Reading scale

Hook for hanging

the produce for

weighing

Maintenance

• Store properly in the tool store.

• Check the graduations regularly to identify and repair faulty parts.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

• Lubricate the moving parts.

Hot Iron

Fig. 3.44: Hot iron

Uses

• It is a device used to apply heat to the horn-buds to destroy the cells and

hence prevent horn growth from these buds.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

Teeth clipper

Fig. 3.45: Teeth clipper

Hook

Pivot

Blade

Uses

• For cutting off wolf-teeth in piglets.

Maintenance

• Clean and disinfect after use.

• Store properly in the tool storage tool cabinet.

• Replace broken handles.

• Lubricate moving parts.

Drenching gun/dosing gun

Fig. 3.46(i): Drenching gun

Fig. 3.46(ii): Dosing gun

Uses

• For oral administration of liquid drugs to animals e.g. during deworming.

Maintenance

• Clean and disinfect after use.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

Bolus gun

piston

Fig. 3.47 Bolus gun

Uses

It is used for:

• Deworming livestock orally using solid drugs(tablets).

Maintenance

• Clean and disinfect after use.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

Dehorning wire

Fig. 3.48: Dehorning wire

Uses

• For dehorning mature livestock. The friction created produces heat which

blocks blood vessels and therefore minimises bleeding.

Maintenance

• Clean and disinfect after use.

• Store properly.

Chaff cutter

This is a xed implement in the farm yard.

Fig. 3.49: Chaff cutter

Uses

It is used to:

• Chop straw, hay or napier grass into small pieces suitable for feeding to

livestock.

Maintenance

• Store properly under a tool shed.

• Apply grease on the moving parts to reduce friction.

• Apply oil on the metallic parts to prevent rusting.

• Paint the frame to prevent rusting.

• Tighten loose nuts and bolts.

• Sharpen blunt cutting blades.

Workshop tools and equipment

These are tools and equipment which are used for the construction and

maintenance of farm structures. They can be divided into two main groups:

(a) Woodwork tools and equipment: These are carpentry tools mainly used

for working on wood/timber.

(b) Metalwork tools and equipment: These tools are used for working on

metals, wires, etc.

Cross cut saw

This is a hand saw that is used in wood work. Its blade length usually measure

450mm – 600 mm. A blade length of 25 mm has approximate of 6 – 10 teeth.

The teeth are usually set at an angle of 60 - 75 degrees.

Fig. 3.50: Cross cut saw

Uses

• For cutting across the grains of timber.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Oil the blade.

• File and set the teeth for efciency.

• Store properly in the tool rack.

Tenon/Back saw

This is a hand saw used in woodwork. Its blade length ranges between 200

mm – 350 mm.

Blade

Back

Length

Screws

Handle

Fig. 3.51: Tenon/back saw

Uses

• For cutting wood grains in any directions, i.e. along or across the grain.

• For joinery work in wood work, e.g. doors.

• Fine sawing of small pieces of timber.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Oil the metallic parts.

• Set the teeth so that the saw performs its work efciently.

Coping saw

This is another type of hand saw used in woodwork.

Fig. 3.52: Coping saw

Handle

Frame

Tension

Blade

Studs

Uses

• Cutting sharp curves in woodwork.

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Clean after use.

• Set the teeth.

Compass/Key hole saw

This is a hand saw used in woodwork.

Fig. 3.53: Compass saw/Key hole saw

Uses

• For cutting holes especially key holes, and for cutting curved or irregular

shapes in wood work.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Oil the metal blade.

• File and set the teeth.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

Rip saw

A rip saw is a hand saw used in woodwork. Its teeth are the largest of all the

handsaws. The total length of the blade ranges between 450 mm – 650 mm.

Uses

• For cutting wood along grains.

• For splitting logs for timber production.

Fig. 3.54: Rip saw

Maintenance

• Oil the blade.

• Clean after use.

• File and set the teeth.

Bow saw

This is a hand saw used in wood work.

Blade

Compression

Handle

Tension

Fig. 3.55: Bow saw

Cord

Crossbar

Uses

• For cutting or sawing,

especially curves.

Fig. 3.56: Hacksaw

Frame

Blade

Tightening wing nut

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Oil the blade to prevent rusting.

• Set and sharpen the teeth.

• Repair any broken parts.

Hack saw

This is a hand saw used in metalwork.

Uses

• Cutting wires and metals.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in the tool rack.

• Oil the metallic parts.

• Replace worn out blade.

• Tighten the blade.

Wood chisel

This is a hand tool used in wood work.

Metal ferrule

Handle

Ferrule

Washer

Blade

Grinding angle (20-25ºC)

Sharpening angle (30-35ºC)

Fig. 3.57(i): Sash mortise chisel Fig. 3.57(ii): Firmer chisel bevel edge

bevel

Uses

• Trimming off rough edges on wood.

• It can also be used to make grooves on wood.

• It is an important tool for making grooves for joints in wood.

Maintenance

• Replace worn out parts.

• Remove the mushrooms if formed.

• Oil the metallic parts to prevent rusting.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

Cold Chisel

This type of chisel is used in metalwork.

Uses

• For cutting heavy gauge metal sheet.

• For cutting shapes in metal sheets.

Maintenance

• Remove the mushrooms if formed.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

Fig. 3.58: Round nosed cold

chisel

Files

These are used in metal work.The surface of a metal le can be single or double

cut.

Handle

Blade

Fig. 3.59 (i): Single cut le

Fig. 3.59 (ii): Double cut le

Blade

Handle

Uses

• For smoothening or sharpening blades of some cutting tools.

Maintenance

• Use a le card to remove chipping of metal from its surface.

• Replace handle when broken.

• Store in a tool cabinet.

Metal les can be grouped into:

(a) Bastard le – used for rough ling in metals.

(b) Smoothing le – used for smoothening metal surfaces.

a metal.

Rasp

This is a hand tool used in woodwork.

It is also called wood le.

Uses

• Used where more material is to be removed and fast.

Fig.3.60:Woodenle(rasp)

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Replace any broken handles.

Wire brush

This tool is used in metal work.

Uses

• Used to clean rusted surfaces or joints to be soldered.

Maintenance

• Store properly in the tool rack.

• Clean after use.

Fig. 3.61: Wire brush

Marking gauge

This is a woodwork tool.

Uses

• For marking parallel lines along the edge of the stock in woodwork to

indicate the cutting line.

Thumb

screw

Fig. 3.62: Marking gauge

Head

Stem

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

• Replace worn out parts.

Divider

This tool is used in metalwork.

Uses

• To scribe arcs or circles on metal surfaces.

Fig. 3.63: Divider

Maintenance

• Tighten loose screws.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

Centre punch

This tool is used in metal work.

Fig. 3.64 Centre punch

Uses

• It is used for marking points on the surface of

metal sheets before drilling.

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

Spokeshave

This tool is used in woodwork.

Fig. 3.65: Spokeshave

Handle

Cross-section of

blade

Body

Blade

Nut for

adjusting

depth

Cap

Screw

Uses

• For smoothing curved surfaces and round edges in wood work.

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

• Sharpen the blade to maintain it in good working condition.

• Replace worn out blades.

• Tighten loose nuts and bolts.

Screw drivers

These have a at or star-shaped head.

Fig. 3.66 (i): Star-screw driver Fig. 3.66 (ii): Flat screw driver

Star screw

Flat screw or

standard

Uses

• Driving screws in and out of metal or wood surfaces.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

• Replace broken and loose handles.

Jack plane

This is a wood work tool. It is the most commonly used plane. It is longer than

other planes i.e. the block plane and the smoothing plane.

Plane iron and plane iron cap

Lateral adjusting lever

Handle

Adjusting nut

Cam

Plane bottom

Mouth

Lever cap

Toe

Cap iron screw

Knob

Lever cap screw

Cap iron screw

Bevel

Slot for lateral adjustment

Plane iron cap

Slot for “Y” adjustment

Plate iron/blade

Fig. 3.67: Jack plane

Slot for level cap screw

Cutting edge

Heel

Uses

• For smoothening surfaces in wood work to produce even surfaces.

Maintenance

• Apply oil to prevent rusting. • Tighten loose parts.

• Repair broken parts. • Clean/remove wood shavings.

• Replace lost bolts and nuts.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

Other planes are:

(a) Blockplane: It is the smallest and lightest. Its length is 15cm.

(b) Smoothingplane: It is 22 cm long. It is used for smoothing surfaces of wood.

so that the two pieces of timber can t together.

Scrapper/spoke shave

This is a tool used in woodwork during the nal stages of smoothening surfaces

on small pieces of work. It serves the same purpose as the planes. The edge of

a scrapper is as sharp as that of a plane, though it is a bit curved. As it moves

on a wood surface, thin shavings are scrapped off.

Fig. 3.68 (i): Scrapper

Fig. 3.68 (ii): Cabinet scrapper

Uses

• For smoothening curved/round surfaces of wood, e.g. when making handles

of garden tools.

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

• Clean after use.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

Try square

This tool is used in both wood and metal work.

Uses

• For checking for squareness (measuring of 45

and 90

) when joining pieces

of wood or setting door and window frames etc.

Maintenance

• Oil the metallic part to prevent rusting.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

Sash Clamp

This tool is used in woodwork.

Fig. 3.69 Sash clamp

Handle

Crumping

screw

Sliding jaw

Frame

Uses

• For fastening parts of wood together e.g. doors, windows, etc.

• For holding together pieces of work when performing other tasks, such as,

sawing and cutting timber.

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Apply old engine oil to prevent rusting.

• Replace pin and chain when broken.

G-Clamp

This tool is used in wood and metalwork.

Uses

• For fastening together small pieces of timber.

• For holding work pieces in the workshop when drilling or cutting.

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Apply grease on the threads.

Fig. 3.70: G-clamp

Handle

Body/

frame

Swivel

shoe

Mallet

A mallet can be used in both woodwork and metalwork. A woodwork mallet

can have a wooden or a plastic head.

Uses

• A metalwork mallet is used for shaping thin sheets of metal which could

be damaged by using steel hammers.

• A woodwork mallet is used to drive in wood chisels.

Maintenance

• Replace broken handles.

• Do not use it to drive in nails.

• Store in a tool rack.

Fig. 3.71: Wooden mallet

Soldering gun

This tool is used in metalwork. The non-electric soldering guns are heated by

ames from a stove or on open heat. They are made of copper and therefore

have the capacity to store heat for a slightly longer period.

Fig. 3.72 (i): Electric soldering bit

Fig. 3.72 (ii): Straight soldering bit

Uses

• For melting rods or soldering wires when repairing or fabricating metal

sheets, or when joining wires using solder.

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool store.

• Remove any form of coating on the soldering bit by use of a wire brush.

• Repair damaged parts.

• Avoid overheating.

Tin-snip

This tool is used in metalwork.

Uses

• For cutting thin sheets of metal and iron.

Maintenance

• Oil to prevent rusting.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

Fig. 3.73: Tinsnip

Claw hammer

This is a woodwork tool.

Uses

• For driving nails into wood and for removing nails from wood.

• For straightening nails.

Maintenance

• Store in a tool rack.

• Replace any worn out handle.

• Tighten loose handles.

Ball-pein hammer

This is both a metalwork and woodwork tool.

Fig. 3.74: Claw hammer

Striking face

Handle

Claws

Wedge

Uses

• For straightening metal sheets and rods.

• For riveting.

• For driving in nails.

Fig. 3.75: Ball pein hammer

Handle

Ball pein

Striking face

Head

Maintenance

• Store in a tool rack.

• Replace any broken handles.

• Place small wedges to x the head rmly.

Paint brush

This tool is used in both woodwork

and metalwork.

Uses

• For applying paint on structures.

Maintenance

• Clean with turpentine after use.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

Fig. 3.76: Paint brush

Sledge hammer

This tool is used in masonry. The handle is of different types and may vary in

length depending on the use of the tool.

Uses

• For demolishing farm structures.

• For driving pegs into the ground.

• For breaking big stones.

Fig. 3.77: Sledge hammer

Maintenance

• Replace handle when broken.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Oil the metallic parts to prevent rusting.

Wire strainer

Uses

• For tightening barbed wire during fencing.

Fig. 3.78: Wire strainer

Maintenance

• Oil to prevent rusting.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

Pliers

This is a useful workshop hand tool with various uses.

Uses

• For cutting thin wires.

• For holding nuts when opening.

• For holding pieces of metal which cannot be held by hand or using clamps.

Fig. 3.79: Pliers

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Apply oil on the pivot to reduce friction.

Brace and bit

This is a woodwork tool.

Uses

• For drilling holes in wood.

Maintenance

• Grease the ratchet.

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

Fig. 3.80: Brace and bit

Jaws

Handle

Quil

Ratchet end

bow

Camring

Chuck shell

Bow

Spanners

There are many types of spanners e.g. adjustable spanner, open-ended spanner,

ring spanner, socket spanner, tubular spanner, etc.

Fig. 3.81 (i): Adjustable spanner

Fig. 3.81 (ii): Ring spanner

Fig. 3.82 (iii): Wrench/open-ended spanner

Fig. 3.82 (iv): Socket spanner

Uses

• For tightening and loosening bolts and nuts of different sizes.

Maintenance

• Apply grease on the rotating parts.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

Pipe wrench

This is a metalwork tool.

Uses

• For opening and closing metal water pipes.

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Oil the adjustment mechanism.

Fig. 3.83: Pipe wrench

Pipe cutter

This is a metalwork tool that is mostly used in plumbing.

Uses

• For cutting metal water pipes.

Fig. 3.84: Pipe cutter mounted on a stand

Stand

Chunk

Handle

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Replace worn out parts.

• Lubricate to reduce friction.

• Apply a coolant oil when cutting to increase grip.

Levelling rod

This tool can be either plastic or wooden.

Fig. 3.85: Levelling rod

Uses

• It is used together with a theodolite.

It measures the distance in the levelling of land. It is normally held in a

straight position. The readings are taken at two points (back side and fore

side). It is commonly used when marking terrace lines or contours on land.

Maintenance

• Store properly.

• Clean after use.

• Re-write the defaced graduated marks.

100

Spirit level

Fig. 3.86: Spirit level

Uses

• To ascertain level-ness or horizontal-ness of a building or wood or metal

structures.

• It is used in construction to ensure the walls are vertical.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool cabinet.

Masons’ trowel

This is a tool used in masonry work.

Uses

• Laying on the mortar during construction, etc.

Fig. 3.87: Masons’s trowel

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Clean after use.

• Oil metallic part to prevent rusting.

Wood oat/metal oat

This is a tool used in masonry work.

Woodfloat

Fig. 3.88 (ii): Metal oatFig. 3.88 (i) : Wood oat

101

Uses

• Level or smoothen concrete and mortar.

• Hold mortar before it is placed in position.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Oil metal oat to prevent rusting.

Hand drills and bit

Uses

• These are tools used for making small holes in wood or metals.

Fig. 3.89 (i): Hand drill bits

Maintenance

• Apply grease on the rotating parts to reduce friction.

• Coat with oil to prevent rusting.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

Fig. 3.89 (ii): Hand drill

Jaws

Chuck

Crank handle

Gear wheel

Handle

Drill bit

Riveting machines

This is a metalwork tool.

102

Fig. 3.90 (i): Riveting tool

Fig. 3.90 (ii): Riveting tool in action

Uses

• Joining sheets of metal and wood, especially, when making chairs by use

of a bob rivet.

Maintenance

• Clean after use.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

Crow bar

It is a fencing tool.

Uses

• For demolishing a fence or removing the staples.

• For tightening barbed wire when fencing.

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Oil to prevent rusting.

Mason’s square

This tool is used by masons.

Uses

• For checking right angles during construction.

Maintenance

• Apply oil to prevent rusting.

• Store properly in a tool rack.

Proper care and maintenance of tools & equipment

i) Use tools for their intended use

ii) Clean tools immediately after using them

Fig. 3.91: Crow bar

Fig. 3.92: Mason’s square

103

iii) Keep tools in their proper places

iv) Always cover sharp pointed tools

v) Handle and use tools properly

vi) Ensure tools are in good working condition before and after using them.

Plumb bob

This tool is used in masonry.

Uses

• Checking for perpendicularity of walls in a building during construction.

Maintenance

• Store properly in a tool rack.

• Replace worn- out strings.

Learning activities

1. Carry out care and maintenance practices of farm tools and equipment

found in the school workshop. Note the order of arrangement and the type

of records kept.

2. Make a visit to a successful farmer or the nearest farmers’ training centre

to observe the various types of farm tools and equipment.

3. Carry out the various livestock operations in the farm using the apppropriate

tools and equipment.

End of Unit 3Test

1. Name the tools or equipment used for each of the following farm practices:

(a) Castrating bulls.

(b) Detecting mastitis in lactating cows.

2. What is the functional difference between a wood chisel and a cold chisel?

3. Draw a well labelled diagram of a knapsack sprayer and outline its uses.

4. State the uses of the following tools and equipment:

(a) Claw hammer.

(b) Ball pein hammer.

5. List the uses of a wheelbarrow in the farm.

6. Name a tool which would be required for each of the following operations:

(a) Cutting over-grown hooves of a bull.

(b) Restraining cattle at an agricultural show.

(d) Marking the point for drilling on a sheet of metal.

7. Where in the body of livestock is the clinical thermometer placed?

Fig. 3.93: Plumb bob

104

8. Give two eld conditions under which a fork jembe would be more suitable

for use than a jembe.

9. List the equipment used during castration of livestock.

10. Mention the tool used when docking sheep.

11. State the uses of a jack plane.

12. Name the tool used to smoothen curved surfaces and wood having knots.

13. Name four types of hand saws used when cutting wood.

105

Crop Production 1 (Land preparation)

UNIT 4

Specic objectives

By the end of the topic, should be able to:

(a) explaintheimportanceoflandpreparation

(b) describethevarioustypesofcultivation

(c) relatecultivationoperationtocorrecttoolsandorimplements

(d) prepareapieceoflandreadyforcropproduction

Introduction

Land preparationinvolvesthepracticescarriedoutonlandtocreateasuitablesoiltilth

inreadinessforplanting.

• Thesizeofsoilclods,thesoildepth,andtheloosenessofthesoil,mustbeappropriate

tofacilitatethegerminationandestablishmentofthecrop.Timelylandpreparation

anddeepploughingcreatesfavourableconditionsforeasymanagementofsubsequent

eldpractices,suchas,weedingandpestcontrol.Landwhichhasbeenpreparedfor

thepurposeofgrowingcropsiscalledaseedbed.

Thereasonfortimelycultivation

(i) Decomposeneedsnoorganicmatter

(ii) AllowenoughforgaseousexchangeexpellingC0

fromthesoilwhileoxygengetsfor

germinationandgrowthofsoilOrganism.

(iii)Toencourageearlyplanting.

Importance of land preparation

• Toremovevegetationcoverwhichmayinterferewiththesubsequentoperations.

• Toburyorganicmatterintothesoilwhichlaterdecomposes.Thishelpsinbinding

soilparticlesaswellasaddingnutrientsintothesoil.

• Tokillpestsanddiseases.Thisisbyexposingthesoil-bornepestsanddisease-causing

organismstoharshenvironmentalconditionsonthesoilsurface,thuskillingthem.

• Tokillperennialweeds,likecouchgrass,whichwouldotherwisecompetewithcrops.

106

• Improvethephysicalconditionofthesoilbylooseningsoilmakingitsuitableforroot

development(i.e.rootpenetration).Thisfacilitatesproperanchorageofplants.

• Improvesinltrationofwaterintothesoil.

Operations in land preparation

Landpreparationinvolvesanumberofoperations.Theseoperationscanbegroupedin

fourcategories:-

• landclearing

• primarycultivation

• secondarycultivation

• tertiaryoperations.

Land clearing

Landclearingcanbedenedastheremovalofvegetationcoverfromthesurfacebefore

ploughing.Stackcroplikemaizeetc.

Itinvolvesthefollowingactivities:

• Fellingoftreesandremovaloftreestumps.

• Slashingorcuttingoftallgrass/shrubs/bushes.

• Burningofvegetation.Thisisnotrecommendedasitdestroysthesoilstructureand

usefulmicro-organisms.Firecanalsospreadtoanareawhereitwasnotintended,and

thismayleadtodestructionofproperty,forestoralreadyestablishedcropsinnearby

farms.

Methods of land ploughing

(i)

Hand method

Itinvolvestheuseofhandtoolslikepangas,slashers,etc.Theuseofthesetoolsisslow

and therefore only a few hectares of land can be cleared over a long period of time.

Thismethodleadstodelayinseedbedpreparationandmayresultinlateplanting,and

consequently,inpoorcropyields.Thismethod of land clearing is commonly used by

smallscalefarmers.

107

(ii) Chemical method

It involves the use of chemicals called herbicides which killthe weeds e.g. Roundup,

gramoxone,atrazineetc.Thismethodisfastandefcient.

(iii) Mechanized method

Thisinvolvestheuseoftractor-mountedimplementse.g.tractorswithachaintofelltrees

inaforestandbulldozerstoremovestumps.Thismethodiscommonlyusedbylargescale

farmers.

Advantages

• Itisefcientinlandclearing.

• Ithasalowlabourrequirement.

• Largeareascanbeclearedwithinashorttime.

Limitation:Thecostofpurchasingandmaintainingthemachinesishigh.

Disadvantages of land method of land clearing

• Itistimeconsuming

• Itistedious

• Itsnotaneffectivemethodoflandclearing

Importance of land clearing

1. It makes subsequent land preparation operations, such as, ploughing, easier and

efcient.

2. Eradicationofpestsanddiseases:Certaincropdiseases,suchas,theArmillariaroot-

rot,ofteabushescanbepreventedbyremovalanddestructionofstumps.Pestsand

animals such as squirrels, mice, and monkeys which destroy crops inhabit bushy

lands.

3. Helpsopenupvirginland.Forestlandorbushyareascannotbecultivatedunlessrst

clearedofthebushesorforesttrees.

4. Itisalandreclamationmethod,especiallyinwarmhumidbushylandspronetotsetse

y infestation and unsuitable for human settlement and livestock keeping. Land

clearinginsuchareasmakesthembecomehabitableforpeopleandlivestock.

108

Primary cultivation

Thisistheinitialopeningoflandeitherafterclearingthebushorafterapreviouscropping.

Primarycultivationcan be carried out using hand tools or mechanically using various

tractor-drawnorox-drawnploughs.

Importance of primary cultivation

•Itmakessubsequentoperationseasier.

• Itfacilitatesaerationandwaterinltrationinthesoil.

• Itcontrolsweeds,suchasrhizomatousweeds,byburyingoruprootingthem.

• Itburiescropresiduestodecomposeandaddnutrientsintothesoil.

• Iteasesthepenetrationofthecroproots.

• Itcontrolspestsanddiseases.Thisisachievedwhenoneexposesthemtothescorching

sunortopredators,e.g.earthwormscanbeeatenbybirds.

• Bringupnutrientspresentinthesubsoilsurface

Tools used in primary cultivation

Hand method: Smallscalefarmersusehandtoolssuchashoes(jembes),forkjembes,

ox-ploughs,etc.

Mechanized method:Thisismainlyusedbythelargescalefarmers.Itinvolvesuseof

discplough,chiselplough,mouldboardplough,rotarycultivators(rotavators),etc.Initial

capitalandmaintenancecostishigh.

Factors that inuence the choice of the tools and equipment for

primary cultivation are:

(i) Typeoftilthrequired:Thiswilldependonthesizeofseedstobeplantede.g.small

seedsneednetilthhencemanytoolsused.

(ii) Cultivationdepth:Deeprootedcropsrequireatoolthatwillploughdeeply.

(iii) Typeofsoil:Heavytoolsarerequiredwhenploughinginheavysoils.

(iv) Soilmoisturecontent:Aforkjembemaybemoresuitablethanajembeinwetsoils.

(v) Sizeoftheland:Thereisneedforheavymechanicalimplementswhendealingwith

largeparcelsofland.

(vi) Availabilityofcapitalandcost:Thefarmermayoptforforanox-drawnplough

becauseitischeaperandcandothesameworkasatractor.

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Timing of primary cultivation

The best time to prepare the seedbed is duringthe dryseason whenthere isoptimum

moisture in the soil to accelerate decomposition, and facilitate mineralization of the

vegetative materials. The seedbed,  which was previously under crop is best prepared

immediatelyafterharvesting.Earlylandpreparationenablesthefarmertoplantearly.

Secondary cultivation

Itinvolvesseedbedrenementpracticesi.e.breakinglargesoilclods.Itisalsoreferredto

as harrowing.Thetimeperiodbetweenprimaryandsecondarycultivationshouldbe3to

4weekstoallowforeasywaterinltration.

Factors determining the number of times secondary cultivation is done

The number of harrowings can be one, two, or more, depending on the following

considerations:

(i) Initial condition of the seedbed: A roughly prepared seedbed during primary

cultivationoropeningupofvirginlandmaynecessitatemoresecondarycultivation.

(ii) Size of planting materials:Cropsthathavesmall-sizedseedsrequireanersoil

tilthandthereforemoresecondarycultivationoperationsarenecessary.

(iii) Slope of the land:Itisadvisabletoreducethenumberofharrowingswhereland

istoosteep.Thisisbecauseitpulverisesthesoilandmakesitmorepronetosoil

erosion.

(iv) Moisture content of the soil:Wetsoilsrequiremoresecondaryoperations.Drysoils

requirelessoperationstoconservemoisture.

(v) Type of implement used during primary cultivation:Alandploughedusingadisc

harrow,thesoilclodstendtobelargerandalotoftrashandfreshvegetationremain

unburied.Thisrequiresmoresecondaryoperations.

Importance of secondary cultivation

• Tobreaklargesoilclodsintoneparticles.

• Todestroyweedswhichmayhavegrownafterprimarycultivation.

• Tocreateasuitabletilthreadytoreceivetheseedsorplantingmaterials.

• Toincorporateorganicmaterials,suchas,cropresiduesintothesoileffectivelyfor

fasterdecomposition.

• To level the seedbed so as to facilitate uniform depth of planting and subsequent

uniformestablishmentofcropsintheeld.

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• Tohelpinmixingorganicmanure,suchas,compostandfarmyardmanure,inorder

toacceleratethereleaseofnutrientsintothesoil.

Tools used in secondary cultivation

Simplehandtoolsliketheforkedjembe,rakes,jembes,ox-ploughcanbeusedsmallscale

farming.

For a large scale farmer, disc harrows, spike tooth harrows, spring tine harrows and

cultivators(rotavators)canbeused.

Fig. 4.2 (i): Disc harrow

Fig. 4.2 (ii): Spike tooth harrow

The use of mechanized method for secondary cultivation has the following benets:

• Therateofworkisfastertherebyfacilitatingtimelylandpreparation.

• Itiseffectiveinburyingweeds.

• Itislesslaborious.

Comparison of the hand method and mechanization:

Mechanized method Hand method

• Therateofworkisfaster. •Therateofworkisslow

• Efcientinburyingtheweeds •Inefcientinburyingtheweeds.

• Lesslaborious. •Verytiring.

• Facilitatestimelyland

preparation.

•Maydelaylandpreparation.

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Relating nal tilth to the intended planting material

Ifafarmerintendstoplantsmallseeds,theseedbedshouldbeofverynetilth,whereas

bigseedsrequiremediumtilth.Largesoilclodshaveatendencyofcoveringtheseeds

inappropriately,thushinderingtheiremergencefromtheground.

Thetilthofseedbedisimportantinthat,ifsmallseedsareplantedinroughseedbed,the

germinationwillbepoor,andtheplantingofseedswillbedifcult.

Whenusingvegetativeplantingmaterials,thetilthoftheseedbed.Canbeoftilth.The

conditionoftheseedbedinuencestheeaseofoperationssuchasweeding.

Tertiary operations

Theseareoperationsdoneontheseedbednecessitatedbythegrowingofcertaincrops.They

followsecondarycultivationandtheyarealsoreferredtoasmiscellaneous operations,

i.e.theextraoperationswhichmayormaynotbedonedependingonaparticularcrop

productionneed.

Theseoperationsincludethefollowing:

Ridging

Itistheheapingofsoiltoformaridge(bund).Thisisachievedthroughmakingoffurrows

betweentheplantingrows.

Itisdonewhenplantingtubercropse.g.sweetpotatoes,Irishpotatoes,etc.

Tools used

Smallscalefarmersusejembesandanimaldrawnridgers.

Largescalefarmersmayusetractor-drawnridgers.

Fig. 4.3: Animal-drawn ridger

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Reasons for ridging

• Toencouragetheexpansionofthecroptubers.

• Helps in the conservation of moisture within the furrows so that the moisture is

retainedforalongtimeforcropuse.

• Tocontrolsoilerosion.

• Itmakesharvestingoftubercropseasye.g.potatoes.

Rolling

Itisthepressingoratteningoftheseedbedwhenplantingcropswhichhaveverytiny

seeds,e.g.ngermillet,pasturegrass,wheat,etc.

Tools used

Smallscalefarmersusesoilrmers.

Largescalefarmersuserollers.

Reasons for rolling

• Tomaketheseedscomeincontactwiththesoilmoisture.

• Toprotectthetopsoillayerandtinyseedsfrombeingcarriedawaybythewind.

• Topromoteuniformgerminationofthetinyseeds.

Levelling

Thisisapracticedoneinpaddyriceeldsbydraggingalevellingboardacrossaprepared

eld.Refer to Fig 3.25 for an illustration of a levelling board.

Reasons for levelling

• Foruniformsupplyofwateratthesamedepthintheentireseedbed.

• Foruniformgerminationandgrowthofthericecrop.

• Tocontrolthepestslikerodentswhichmayhideinsomepatchesinriceelds.

Equipment used

• Levellingboard.

•Rakes.

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Sub-soiling

Itisthebreakingupofhardpans.Thedepthoftheoperationis60cm–90cm.Itiscarried

outbyuseofasub-soiler.

Causes of hard pans

• Continuouscultivationatthesamedepth.

• Usingheavymachineryonwetsoils.

Equipment used : Sub-soilers and chisel ploughs.

Fig. 4.4 (i): Chisel plough

Fig. 4.4 (ii): Sub-soiler

Importance of sub-soiling

• Breaksthehardpansthusallowingfordeeppenetrationofplantroots.

• Improvessoilaeration.

• Improveswaterinltrationdeepintothesoil.Thishelpstoconservesoilmoistureand

reducesurfacerun-off.

Minimum tillage

Thisreferstothelandpreparationmethodwherethecultivationoperationsarereducedto

aminimallevel,i.e.thesoilisleftun-disturbedunlesscultivationisverynecessary.

Importance of minimum tillage

• Toreducesoilerosion.

• Toreducethecostoflandpreparationandsaveonlabour.

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• Toconservesoilmoisture.

• Promotestimelyplantingsincelittletimeisspentontillingland.

• Maintainsthesoilstructure.

• Preventsdamagetocroprootsduringweedinge.g.coffee,citrusfruits,underground

tubersandbulbsetc.

Minimum tillage can be achieved through the following practices:

• Useofmulchtopreventweedgrowth.

• Slashingoruprootingofweeds.

• Useofherbicidestokillweeds,e.g.Simazine,Atrazine,Duron.

• Plantingofcovercropstosmotheroutweedsandtoconservemoisturee.g.sweet

potatoes.

• Cultivatingonlywheretheplantis.

Project

(a) Carryoutlandpreparationuntilthelandisreadyforplantingandobservethetools

usedatthevariousstages.

(b) Notetheproblemsencounteredincarryingouttheproject.

Learning activities

Visitthehomesaroundyourschoolduringtheperiodoflandpreparation.Distinguisha

goodseedbedfromabadseedbed.Notethetoolsused.

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End of Unit 4 Test

1. Whatiscultivation?

2. Whatisthedifferencebetweenprimaryandsecondarycultivation?

3. Stateanytwofactorswhichdeterminethechoiceofimplementstobeusedinprimary

cultivation.

4. Namevesecondarycultivationimplements.

5. Nametwohandtoolsusedtoprepareaseedbed.

6. Explaintheoperationscarriedoutduringtertiaryoperations.

7. Statethereasonsforridgingaseedbed.

8. Nametheimplementusedinharrowing.

9. Explainwhybushburningisdiscouragedduringlandpreparation.

10.(a) Whatisminimumtillage?

(b) Explaintheimportanceofminimumtillage.

11. Whatissub-soiling?

12. Mentionthemethodsoflandclearing.

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Water supply, irrigation and drainage

UNIT 5

Specic objectives

By the end of the topic, I should be able to:

(a) statethesourcesofwaterforthefarm

(b) describecollection,storage,pumpingandconveyanceofwater

(c) describewatertreatmentandexplainitsimportance

(d) deneirrigation

(e) explaintheimportanceofirrigation

(f) describemethodsofirrigatingland

(g) listtheequipmentusedinirrigation

(h) growacropthroughirrigation

(i) carryoutmaintenanceonirrigationequipmentandfacilities

(j) denedrainage

(k) explaintheimportanceofdrainage

(l) describethemethodsofdrainage

(m)explainhowagriculturalactivitiespollutewaterandhowthiscanbeprevented

(n) demonstrateanappreciationforcleanwaterinfarmingandlifeingeneral

Water supply

Waterisessentialforlivestockandcropproductioninthatalargepartofplantandanimal

tissueslargelydependonitforsurvival.

Sources of water

Therearethreemainsourcesofwaternamely:

1. Surface water

Thisiswaterwhichowsbygravityoriscollectedontheearth’ssurfacee.g.waterfound

inrivers,streams,dams,lakes,ponds,etc.

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Thiswateroriginatesfromwatercatchmentareaslikemountains,hillsandforestareas.

Surfacewatercaneitherbetemporaryorpermanent.

Weirsanddamsareconstructedtoraisethewaterlevelforeasypumpingorgravityow.

Lakesarehugewatercollectionareaswhichreceivewaterfromrivers,streams,springs

andrain.Thiswaterhastobetreatedbeforeuse.

2. Underground water sources

Thesesourcesofwaterincludesprings,wells,andboreholes.

(a) Springs

Thisiswaterthatcomesoutofthegroundthroughanimperviouslayerofrockexposed

atthegroundsurface,whichlatercollectsintoastream.Alowwallisconstructedaround

thespringtoincreasethevolumeofwaterforeasypumping.Thespringisthenprotected

byfencingtopreventcontaminationofwaterbyanimals.

(b) Wells

Wellsaredug-outholeswhichsupplywater.Theholesareduguntilthewatertableis

reached,usuallyabout15metresdeep.Awellshouldbedugduringthedryseasonwhen

thewatertableislowtoensuresthatthewaterleveldoesnotgobelowthebottomofthe

welldryupduringthedryseason.Thewellshouldbefencedandttedwithalockable

lidreinforcedwithconcreteslabtopreventcontaminationandwearingofthetopsides

ofthewall.Waterfromawellisliftedbyuseofasimplelifthandpump,abucket,ora

pulley.

Thesearedeepholesdrilledintothegroundusingmachines.Theyaresmallindiameter

linedwithaspecialmetalcasingperforatedatthebottomendtoallowwatertoriseup.

Submersiblepumpsoperatedbyelectricity,dieselenginesorwinddrivenareusedtolift

wateroutofthehole.However,theyareexpensivetodig.Boreholesareduguptothe

parentrock.

3. Rain water

Thisis thewatercollectedfromroof topsduringthe rainyseasons. usinggutters and

directedintotanks.Pondscanalsobedugtocollectthesurfacerunoff.Thestoredwater

canbeusedfordomesticpurposesandforlivestock.

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Collection and storage of water

During the rainy season, water should be collected and stored for use during the dry

seasons.Disscussedbelowaresomeofthestructuresusedtostorewater.

Water storage structures

(a) Dams

Damsstorewatercollectedforuseduringthedryseason.Theyaredesignedtoprevent

theowofwater.Theyhaveaspillwaytoallowexcesswatertoowaway.Thesidesof

thedamarenormallymadeofearthwhilethebottomhasanimperviouslayertoprevent

waterseepage.Grassshouldbeplantedonthebankstocontrolsoilerosionandawayfrom

treesandbushestopreventseepageofwaterfromtheroots.

(b) Weirs

Theseareconstructedacrossariver.Aweircanbemadeofstone,concreteorloosestones

heldbywiremeshsuchthatitraisesthelevelofwaterwithoutstoppingitsow.Pumping

ofthewatercanthenbedoneeasily.

Fig 5.1 (ii): Weir

Fig 5.1 (i): Dam

Thesecanbemadeofconcrete,stones,metalsheets,plasticsorrubber.Theystorerain

waterorwaterpumpedfromrivers,streams,lakes,wells,andboreholes.Stoneandconcrete

tankshavetobereinforcedwithwiremeshorbarbedwireduringtheirconstructionto

withstand the pressure of water. Tanks should be placed on a strong base made from

stones,concreteorwood.Therearealsoundergroundconcretetankswhichareusedto

collectandstorerooftopandsurfacerun-offwater.Tanksshouldbecoveredtoprevent

contaminationfromdust.Theyshouldbecleanedwhendirthasaccumulated.Paintthe

tanktoincreaseitslifespanandrepairanydamagestopreventleakage.

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Roof

Gutter

Funnel lid with a lter

Overow pipe

Tank

Drainage pipe blocked

with a gate valve

Base

Outlet pipe

Fig 5.2: A water tank

(d) Drums/barrels

Theyareusedtostorewater.Theyshouldbethoroughlycleanediftheyaretobeused.

Othercontainerswhichcanbeusedtostorewaterinrelativelysmallquantities,arepots,

jerri-cans,tins,basins,etc.

Pumps and pumping of water

Pumpingis the liftingofwaterfrom onepointto another byuseofmechanical force.

Waterispumpedfromrivers,reservoirs,lakes,wells,andspringsthenpipedforuseor

storage.Thesizeofpumpshouldbeappropriateforthequantityofwatertobehandled.

Water Pumps

Thereareseveraltypesofpumpsthatcanbeusedtoliftwaterfromitssource.

(a) Centrifugal pumps

Thesepumpsapplytheprincipleofcentrifugalforceorthe“outwardying”effectcreated

bydiscblades(impellers)containedinarevolutecasingrevolvingathighspeed.These

pumpsarepowerfulandcanpumplarge quantitiesofwaterforirrigation,rural and

urbanusage.Diesel/petrolenginesorelectricalmotorsareusedtooperatethesepumps.

(b) Piston pumps (reciprocating pumps)

Theyhavepistonsthatmovebackandforth,pushingwaterthroughthepipes.Thepumps

aremainlyusedtopumpsmallquantitiesofwatere.g.fordomesticandlivestockuse.

Mostpistonpumpsarepetrol/dieselengineoperated.

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Water well

Piston

Bucket

Outlet pipe

Handle

Fig 5.3: Simple hand piston pump

Theyareusedtopumpwaterfromwellsbyhand.Theycanonlypumpsmallamountsof

waterfordomesticandlivestockusesincetheyarehandoperated.

(d) Hydrams

Thesepumpsareoperatedbytheforceofowingwater.Theyaresuitableforuseinslopy

areaswherewaterowsathighspeed.Theypumprelativelysmallquantitiesofwaterin

comparisontootherpumps.Theirmodeofoperationissuchthatwaterinitiatespressure

inthepumpandaspressureincreases,morewaterispumped.

Otherwaterpumpsarejetpumps,diaphragmpumps,solarpumps,windpumps,etc.

Fig 5.4 (i): Engine pump

Fig 5.4 (ii): Centrifugal pump

(mainly used in boreholes)

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Fig 5.4 (iii): Boaster pump with automatic sensor

Conveyance of water

This is the process of taking water from one place to another through use of pipes,

containers,canals,etc.

Piping

Thisistheconveyanceofwaterthroughpipes.

Types of pipes

(i) Metal pipes

Therearetwotypesofmetalpipes:

(i)Galvanisedironpipeswhicharemadefromgalvanisediron.

 Theyareheavy,durable,andareusedforpermanentinstallation.

(ii) Aluminium pipes whicharemadefromaluminiummetal.

 Aluminiumpipesarelightandareusedinirrigationsystems.

 Theyarenotcorrodableandareeasytotransport.

(iii) Copperpipes-notcommonlyused

Advantages

 i)Requireslessskill/easytoworkwith

 ii)Lowerinstallationcosts

 iii)Notpronetocorrossion

 iv)Antibacterialluhibitgrowthbacterialinwater

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Disadvantage

 i)Expensivetobuy

Advantages of metal pipes

• Theyaredurable.

• Theycanwithstandhighpumpingpressure.

• Theycannotbedestroyedbyrodents.

Disadvantages

• Theyareexpensivetobuy.

• Theyrequirehightechnicalskilltoinstallandmaintain.

(ii) Plastic pipes

Theyaremadefromplasticmaterials.

Advantages

• Theyarecheaptobuy.

• Theyaredurableifproperlyinstalled.

Disadvantages

• Canburstunderhighpressure.

• Canbegnawedbyrodentse.g.rats.

• Whenexposedtothesun,theybecomebrittle.

(iii) Hose pipes

Therearetwotypes:Rubberhosepipesandplastichose-pipes.Rubberhosepipesare

moreexpensiveanddurable.Plastichosepipesarecheapandlessdurable.Hosepipes

areusedtoconveywaterfromtapsfordomesticuse,forirrigatinggardensortowhere

thewaterisneeded.

Choice of pipes

Factorstoconsiderwhenchoosingpipes:

• Durabilityofthepipe.

• Strength/workingpressureofthepipe:Wherethepressureofthewaterisveryhigh,

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bigstrongpipeswillberequired.

• Sizeofthepipe:Thiswilldependonthequantityofwatertobesupplied.

• Costofthepipe.

Canals

Watercanbeconveyedthroughfurrows/canalsfromanareaofhighelevationtoalower

point along a gradient which facilitates movement of water by gravity for irrigation

purposes or for livestock watering. An example is Yatta canal located in Machakos

District,Kenya.

Advantages

• Itisrelativelycheaptoconstructandmaintain.

• Waterowsbygravity.

• Itsconstructiondoesnotrequiremuchtechnicalknow-how.

Disadvantages

• Itrequiresconstantrepairofthefurrowsandremovalofsilt.

• Ithasahighrateofevaporationleadingtosalinesoils.

• Accidentscanoccurduringoodingifthereistoomuchrainfall.

Transportation in containers

Thiscanbedoneusingtractorsortankerswhichtransportlargevolumesofwater.Animal

cartstransportwatercontainedindrumsorjerri-cans.

Water treatment

Water treatmentistheprocessofremovingtheundesirablepropertiesofrawwaterto

makeitsafe(clean)forhumanandlivestockconsumption.

Importance of water treatment

Wateristreatedforthefollowingreasons:

1. Tokilldisease-causingorganismse.g.liverukes,bacteria,etc.

2. Tomakethewatercleanthroughremovalofforeignsolidparticles,suchassoil,sand

andsticks.

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3. To remove chemical impurities  which  are harmful to human beings e.g. excess

uoride.

4. Toremoveodourandbadtastefromwater.

Water treatment methods

Watercanbetreatedinvariousways.Theseinclude:ltrationmethod,chemicalmethod,

boilingmethodandaerationmethod.

1. Filtration method

This method is used to remove suspended particles in water. During ltration, large

ltration tanks are used. They  consist of gravel at the bottom, small clean pieces of

charcoalatthetopofthegravel,andalayerofcleansandatthetop.Dirtywaterispoured

intotheltrationtankwhereitpassesthroughthedifferentlayersremovingallthesolid

particlesintheprocessofltration.

2. Chemical method

• Watercanbemadesafeforhumanconsumptionbytheadditionofchlorine.Chlorine

canbeintheformofchlorinatedlimeorsodiumhypochloride.

• Waterfromasourcethatisinfestedwithwatersnailsshouldbetreatedwithcopper

sulphatetokillthesnails.Thispreventsthespreadofbilharzia.

• Watercanalsobesoftened by adding to it equal proportions of sodaash(sodium

bicarbonate)andalum(aluminiumsulphate).Sodaashsoftensthewaterwhilealum

helpstocoagulatetinysolidparticleswhichthensettleatthebottom.

3. Boiling method

Thisisdoneinsmallscalewatertreatmenttokilldisease-carryingorganismstoofprevent

water-bornediseases,suchas,typhoid,bilharzia,etc.Boilingwateristime-consuming

andexpensiveandisonlysuitablewhentreatingwaterfordomesticuse.

4. Aeration method

Pumping air into water helps to reduce excess amounts of chemical compounds of

manganeseandironwhicharetoxicinhighconcentrations.

Process of water treatment in a water treatment plant

Thefollowingarestagesinthetreatmentofwaterforhumanconsumption:

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1. Filtration at water intake:Waterispassedthroughaseriesofsievesofdifferentsizes

toremovesuspendedandoatingbodiesfromthewater.

2. Softening of water: This is treatment perfomed to soften hard water i.e. water

containing impurities such as calcium and magnesium compounds with soda ash

(sodiumbicarbonate)Alum(aluminiumsulphate)isalsoaddedandcoagulatessolid

particleswhichsettleatthebottomofthewatercontainer.

3. Coagulation and sedimentation: Solid particles coagulate and settle at the bottom

ofthetank.Thetankisopenedtoletinfreshairtoairremovesbadodoursandthe

attasteoftheuntreatedwater.Waterstaysinthisprocessfor36hourstokillany

bilharziawormspresent.

4. Filtration: Water passes through ltration tank which has layers of gravel at the

bottom, ne sand particles on top.Waterseeps slowly leaving solid particles dirt,

gravelandsand.

5.Chlorination:Thisistheprocessoftreatingwaterwithchlorine.Smallamountsof

chlorineareaddedtothewaterinthetankandkillsalltheharmfulmicro-organisms.

6. Storage:Wateristhenstoredinastoragetankbeforedistribution.totheconsumers

bypumpingorpiping.

Fig 5.5: Water treatment

Distribution

pipe (to

consumers)

Storage tank

Chlorinator

Filtration

tank

Large gravel

Medium gravel

Fine sand

Channel

Sedimentation tank

Pipe with

holes

Mixing chamber

Chemical doser

Screen or lter

Intake

River

Uses of water on the farm

• Fordomesticpurposese.g.dishwashing,cooking,drinking,housecleaning,laundry,

etc.

• Forwateringlivestockandcleaninglivestockproductionequipmente.g.milkchurn,

stripcup,milkstrainer,etc.

126

• Fordilutingchemicalsusedtocontrolpestsanddiseasesincropsandlivestock,e.g.

herbicides,dipwash.

• Duringtheprocessingoffarmproducee.g.inthepulpingofcoffee,tanningofhides

andskins,etc.

• Intheconstructionofbuildingse.g.concretemixing,mortarmixing,curingofnewly

placedblocksorbrickwalls,etc.

• Forirrigationpurposes.

• Forcoolingmillsandotherfarmmachinerye.g.tractorengines.

• Asasourceoffarmpowere.g.grindingofgrainsinawatermill.

Irrigation

Thisisthearticialapplicationofwaterintheseedbedforthepurposeofgrowingcrops.

Irrigationisusedunderthefollowingcircumstances:

(a) Dryareas:Whererainfallisinadequateandhenceinsufcientforcropproduction.

(b) During long dry periods: Crops such as coffee, citrus fruits, pineapples, and other

horticulturalcrops,requireirrigationduringthedryseasontosustainhighproduction.

Vegetablescanfetchhighmarketpricesifgrownunderirrigationduringtherain-off

season.

(c) Whengrowingpaddyrice,whichrequiresoodedseedbeds.

Importance of irrigation

• Irrigationduringdryperiodsincreasescropyieldsandensuresasteadysupplyoffood

throughouttheyear.

• Irrigationmaximisestheutilizationofresources,e.g.inplaceswherethesoilisfertile

buttherainfallisinadequate.Irrigationisimportantforthereclamationofaridand

semi-aridlands(ASAL)asitenhancesagriculturalproductivity.

• Irrigationprovides a regular,reliable, andadequatesupply ofwaterin areaswith

littleornorainfalli.e.receivinglessthan250mmp.a.

• Irrigatonisasourceofemploymentinareaswhereitisusedextensively.

• Irrigationpromotescropproductionfortheexportmarketandthereforecontributesto

acountry’srevenue.

127

Irrigation methods

Therearefourmethodsofirrigationnamely:

(a) Surfaceirrigation.

(b) Overhead/sprinklerirrigation.

(c) Drip/trickleirrigation.

(d) Sub-surfaceirrigation.

(a) Surface irrigation

Insurfaceirrigation,waterisbrought toacrop eldfromits sourcethroughcanals or

furrows.

Conditions necessary for surface irrigation:

(i) Topography.Thelandmustbefairlylevel(gentlesloping)forthewatertoow

bygravity.

(ii) Amount of water supply. Plenty of water is required due to high wastage through

seepageandevaporation.

(iii) Soil type.Thesoilmustbeabletoholdwaterforalongperiodoftimeandshould

preferablybeclaysoil.

(iv) Evaporation rate.Wheretheevaporationrateishigh,thereisalotofwastageof

waterandthecropsgetlittleornowater.Therateofevaporationshouldbeminimised.

Maintenance of surface irrigation

Insurfaceirrigation,thefollowingmaintenanceoperationsarenecessary:

• Repairofleveesifbroken.

• Removalofweedsinthecanals,basininletandoutlet.

• De-siltingofcanals.

• Repairofsluicegates.

Surface irrigation can be practiced in three ways namely: ood irrigation, furrow

irrigation, and basin irrigation.

(i) Flood irrigation

Inthistypeofirrigation,waterisallowedtoowintotheeldthroughfurrowsorcanals.

Itisthendirectedtothevariouspartsofthefarmbytheopeningofsluicegatesintheeld.

128

Fig 5.6: Flood irrigation, furrow supply water into a eld

Advantages

1. Itisrelativelycheaptoestablish.

2. Itrequireslessskill.

Crops,suchas,cottonandfruitsareirrigatedthroughooding.

Disadvantages

1. Wastageofwateri.e.alotofwaterisrequired.

2. Waterisunevenlydistributed,causingwaterlogginginsomeareaswhileotherparts

donotgetenough.

3. Siltationofthecanalsiscommon.

(ii) Furrow irrigation

Thisisusedonlandwithgentleslopes.Waterowsthroughopengatesintofurrows.

Whicharedugalong the contours to reduce soilerosion.Aswater ows through the

furrows,itwetsthesoil.Cropsareplantedontheridgesofthefurrows.Thespacingof

thefurrowsdependsonthespacingofthecrop.Thefurrowsaremaintainedbyrepairing

embankmentswhenerodedorwornout,andbyremovalofweedsandaccumulatedsilt.

FurrowirrigationiscommonlypracticedinPerkerraIrrigationSchemewherehorticultural

cropsaregrown.

Advantages

• Reducesfungaldiseasese.g.leafblightsincethereisnocontactwithleafofthecrop.

• Relativelycheaptoestablishandmaintain.

• Requireslessskill.

129

Fig 5.7: Furrow irrigation

Furrows

Ridgeswherecropsare

planted

Disadvantages

• Alotofwateriswasted.

• Soilerosionmayoccurifthedesignisnotwelldone.

• Ifwaterissaline,itmayaffectplantroots.

• Itisnoteasytomaintainauniformowofwaterinthefurrowsfromthesourcetothe

end.

(iii) Basin irrigation

Itistheoodingofanentireareaenclosedbyearthembarkmentsknownasdykes/levees.

Thedepthofthewateriscontrolledbythedykes/levees.Thegroundshouldbelevelledand

thedykeorleveeconstructedaroundeachlevelledground.Levelledgroundsurrounded

bydykesiscalledalevel basin.Waterisallowedintoeachlevelbasinthroughaninlet.

Examples of areas where this type of irrigation is used are  Mwea Tebere Irrigation

Scheme,andtherice-growingareasinBunyalaandAhero.Sometimes,fruitsandtrees

aregrowninbasinswherethereisabasincreatedforeachtreecrop.

Disadvantages

• Itisexpensivetoestablish.

• Itresultsinaccumulationofalotofsaltsinthesoil.

• Itcannotbeusedinslopyareas.

• Floodsmaydestroythebasinsduringheavyrains.

• Alotofwateriswasted.

• Thereisahighincidenceofwater-bornediseasese.g.bilharziaandmalaria.

130

Fig 5.8: Basin irrigation in Mwea Tebere

(b) Overhead irrigation

Itistheapplicationofwatertocropsinformofsmalldropletslikerain.Thisisdoneby

means of sprinklers, watering cans, or hose pipes. Sprinklers are mounted on vertical

pipeswhichallowwatertopassthroughathighpressure.

Types of Sprinklers

Therearetwomaintypesofsprinklersnamely:

(i) The

continuous rotating sprinklerssuitableforsmallscaleirrigation.

(ii) The

spring loaded sprinklerssuitableforlargescaleirrigation.

Advantages

• Waterisevenlydistributedinthefarm.

• Itminimiseswastageofwater.

• Itcanbeusedonslopygroundsoratareas.

• Onecanirrigatealargeareabychangingthelocationofsprinklersinturns.

• Soluble fertilizers can be applied together with irrigation water, e.g. nitrogenous

fertilizers(fertigation).

Disadvantages

• Theinitialcostofinstallingthepumps,pipes,andsprinklersishigh.

• Itencouragesfungaldiseaseoutbreakse.g.blightintomatoandCoffeeBerryDisease

incoffeeduetowateraccumulatingontheleaves.

• Itcancauseerosionifnotproperlycontrolled,especially,inslopyareas.

131

• Itrequiresestablishmentofawindbreaktopreventwaterdrift,whichmaymakethe

methodin-efcient.

• Maintenanceofthesystemrequiresspecialisedskills.

• Itresultsinunevendistributionofwatertocrops.

Fig 5.9: Overhead irrigation using sprinklers (continuous rotating type)

Maintenance

• Repairanybrokenparts.

• Checkthesprinklernozzlesregularlyforanyblockage.

Dripirrigationinvolvesapplicationofwaterinsmalldropletswithintheplantrootsystem

byuseofpolyvinylpipeswithperforations.Aswaterpassesthroughthepipe,itcomes

outinsmallquantitiesanddripstotheground,wettingthesoil.Thepipesperforations

correspondtothespacingofthecrops.Bottlescanalsobeusedmainlyforsmallscale

growingofhorticulturalcrops,trees,et.c.Cropsirrigatedusingthismethodarefruittrees,

coffeeandpawpawtrees.ThismethodislargelyusedattheUniversityofNairobifarm

inKibweziandinIsrael.Mosthorticulturalfarmsusethisirrigationmethodwithinthe

greenhouses.

132

Fig 5.10: Drip/trickle irrigation using a bottle

Advantages

• Economicaluseofwaterasitisonlysuppliedattherootofthecrop.

• Waterunderlowpressurecanbeusedaslongasitisowingalongthepipe.

• ItminimizesoutbreakofdiseasessuchasblightandCoffeeBerryDiseaseaswateris

applieddirectlyattherootzoneanddoesnotcomeincontactwithplantleaves.

• Itreducescompetitionwithweedsaslittlewatergetsinbetweentherows.

Disadvantages

• Thepipesusedareexpensivetobuyandinstal.

• Whenusingperforatedpipes,onlycleanwatermustbeusedtoavoidblockageofthe

perforations.

• Requireshightechnologicalskillstoinstalandmaintain.

Maintenance

• Repairbrokenpipes.

• Unblocktheperforations.

• Flushthepipesorblockedbottlemouthpiecewithphosphoricacidincasethesoilis

slightlysaline.

(d) Sub-surface irrigation

Inthissystem,perforatedpipesarelaidunderground.Waterpassesthroughthepipes,and

thenseepsintothesurroundingsoil.Themethodbutissuitablefortreecrops,suchas,

citrusandcoffee,etc.

133

Advantages

• Oncethepipesarelaid,itislabour-saving.

• Itcanbepractisedonslopyoratland.

• Waterdoesnotcausesoilerosionasitisonlyadministeredinsmallamounts.

• Fungaldiseasessuchasblightintomatoes,arereducedbecausewaterdoesnotcome

incontactwithplantleaves.

Disadvantages

• Thepipesareveryexpensive.

• Thepipesareeasilydestroyedduringlandpreparation.

• Theefciencyofthemethodreliesonhighsoilcapillarity.

• Sedimentsmayblockthenozzlesthushinderingeffectiveirrigation.

Maintenance

• Unblockanyblockednozzles.

• Repair/replaceblockedpipes.

• Regularlyushthepipeswithphosphoricacidtoremoveanysaltspresentinpipes,

especiallywhensoilsaresaline.

Factors to consider in the choice of an irrigation method:

• Availability of water.Ifwaterislimited,dripirrigationwillbepreferredoversprinkler

irrigation.

• Land topographye.g.foroodirrigation,thelandoughttobelevelenough;furrow

irrigationisonlypossibleongentle,slopingland.

• Type of crop to be grown e.g. for rice growing, basin irrigation is preferred over

sprinkler irrigation. For perennial crops, such as, coffee and pineapples, overhead

sprinklerirrigationismostsuitable.

• Soil type.Heavysoilsuchas,clayeyissuitableforfurrowirrigation.

• Availability of capital.

Class project

Carryoutaprojectoncropproductionusinganyoftheirrigationmethodssuitableforthe

schoolfarm.Youcanusethedrip,basin,oroverheadirrigationmethod.

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Drainage

Itisthepracticeofremovingexcesswaterfromthelandtomakeitsuitableforagricultural

production.Thisisamethodoflandreclamation.

Causes of poor drainage

Poordrainagecanbedueto:

• Toomuchrainfallinatorlowlyingareas.

• Highamountsofclayparticlesinthesoil.Thesehavehighwaterholdingcapacity.

• Presenceofimpermeablerocknearthesoilsurface.

• Formationofhardpansinthesoil.Thispreventswaterpercolationintolowersoil

depths.

• Highwatertable.

Importance of drainage

• Oncedrained,awiderangeofcropscanbegrown.

• Thesoilbecomeswellaeratedbecausethewaterwhichoccupiedairspacesisremoved.

• It results in high activity of soil micro-organisms thus improving the rate of

decompositionof organicmaterials torelease mineralsand othernutrients.Thisis

duetogoodaerationandoptimumsoiltemperatures.

• Itreducessoilandwater-bornepestsanddiseasese.g.malaria,bilharzia.

• Itisasalandreclamationmethod.

• Increasessoilvolume.

Methods of drainage

(a) Surface drainage

Methodsofsurfacedrainageinclude

 •Openditches.

 •Camberedbeds.

(i) Open ditches

This is the most widelyused method of removing excess waterfrom a eld. U orV-

shapedopenditchesareconstructed.Theymustbedeepandwideenoughinordertobe

effective.

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Advantages

• Largequantitiesofwatercanbeeasilydrained.

• Itischeapertouse.

Disadvantages

• Ithashighmaintenancecosts,i.e.itrequiresconstantremovingofsiltafteraperiod

ofuse.

• Itinterfereswiththeagriculturalmechanisationofcertainoperations.

• Ittakesoffvaluablelandspacewhichcouldhavebeenusedforplantingofcrops.

• Soilerosionmayariseiftheditchesarenotwelldesigned.

(ii) Cambered bed

Thisinvolvesmakinglargeheapsofsoilinformofbigandbroadridgesormoundson

whichcropsaregrown.Thewatercollectsanddrainsintothespacesbetweenthemounds

(ridges),andowsawaybygravity.

Advantages

• Itinterceptswaterthatowslaterallydowntheslopes.

• Excesswaterisdischargedfromthelandmakingitsuitable(arable)forcropgrowing.

• Itistheeasiestandcheapestmethodofreclaimingaswampyarea.

Disadvantages

• Highmaintenancecostduetoconstantrepairs.

• Itcanformabreedingplaceofmosquitoes.

• Perennialweedsestablishthemselvesinthedrains.

• Itcausessomedifcultiesinusingfarmmachinery.

• Farmanimalscaninjurethemselvesintheopenditches.

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Fig 5.11: Drip/trickle irrigation using a bottle

Raised bed

Ditches for water

drainage

Normal ground level

b) Sub-surface drainage

Thisisadrainagesysteminwhichthepipesortunnelsconductingawayexcesswaterare

laidbelowthesoilsurface.Watercollectedinthepipesisledawaytothedesiredlocations

e.g.riversordams.Thiskindofdrainagesystemdoesnotinterferewitheldoperations.

Sub-surfacedrainagemethodsincludemoledrains,useofporous/perforatedpipes,and

Frenchdrains.

(i) French drains

These are ditches dug to a depth of 60 cm, and  lled with small and medium-sized

stones.Thestonesarethencoveredwithtrashandlightsoil.Waterslowlydrainsfrom

thesurroundingareaintothedrain.

Fig 5.14: French drains

Covered with soil

Stones

Ditch lled stones

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(ii) Porous pipe drains

Shortpiecesofpipesabout30–40cmlong,areplacedunderthegroundandrunfrom

endtoend.Therearegapsbetweenthepipestoallowwatertodrainintothemandbe

conductedaway.Thepipesareeithermadeofclay,concrete,plasticorsteel.Perforated

pipescanalsobelaidundergroundsuchthatwatersipsthroughtheperforationsandis

conductedaway.

Itinvolvestheuseofpumpstoconductawaywatertoareaswhereitmaybeneeded.

(d) Planting deep rooting crops

Trees,suchaseucalyptus,shouldbeplantedinmarshyareas.Theirrootspenetratedeepin

thesoilcreatingwaterwaysforwatertoseepthrough.Thetreesalsoabsorbalotofwater

whichisthenlostthroughtranspiration.

Water pollution

Thisisthecontaminationofwatersourcesbyharmfulchemicalsubstancesreleasedto

the environment through human activities. These chemical substances are referred to

as pollutants and can be chemicals from industries, and/or agricultural materials, e.g.

fertilizers,pesticides,fungicidesoracaricides.

Agricultural practices that pollute water

Therearemanypracticesinfarmingthatcancausewaterpollution.Theseinclude:

• Useofagro-chemicalsinthefarmlandse.g.fertilizersappliedincroplandmaybe

washedawaybyerosionagentstowaterbodies.

• Cultivatingalongtheriverbanksencouragessoilerosion,oodingandsiltationof

streams,rivers,etc.

• Overcultivationleadingtopulverizationofthesoilerosionandsoilisdepositedin

waterbodies.

• Overstockingleadingtoovergrazingandeventuallysoilerosionleadingtosilting

problems.

Methods of water pollution prevention and control

(i) Useofnon-chemicalmethodsinthecontrolofpestsanddiseasese.g.application

ofcultural,biological,andintegratedpestcontrolmethods,suchas,practicingeld

hygiene,plantingresistantvarietiesofcrops,useofhealthplantingmaterialsetc.

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(ii) Plantingoftreesalongtheriverbankstopreventsoilerosion.

(iii) Enforcingsoilandwaterconservationmeasurestoreducesoilerosion.

(iv) Conservationofwatercatchmentareasthroughafforestation.Avoidcultivatingin

thecatchmentarease.g.forests.

(v) Discouragecultivationalongtheriverbanks.

(vi) Protectionofthewatersourcessothatlivestockorpeoplemaynotcontaminatethe

water.Thiscanbedonethroughfencingofftheareas.

Learning activities

1. Planavisitoutsidetheschooltoidentifythefollowingsourcesofwater:

 (a)Surfacewater. (b)Undergroundwater.

2. Howiswaterobtainedinyourschool?

 Mentionthesource,meansofconveyance,andtreatmentbeforeuse.

3. Visitawatertreatmentplant.Notethevariousstagesandchemicalsusedinwater

treatment.

4. Identifytherainwaterharvestingstructureswithintheschoolcompound.

End of Unit 5 Test

1. Statethefactorstobeconsideredwhenchoosingthemethodofirrigationinagiven

area.

2. Whatisthedifferencebetweenaweirandadam?

3. Whatdeterminesthetypeofirrigationequipmenttobeusedonagivenfarm?

4. Listthemajorsourcesofwatersupplyinthefarm.

5. Outlinethemethodsofwatertreatment.

6. Mentionthesoiltypewhichbestsuitssurfaceirrigation.

7. Nametwochemicalsthatareusuallyusedinwatertreatment.

8. Underwhatconditionswouldirrigationberecommended?

9. Namethreetypesofsurfaceirrigation.

10. Namefourtypesofpumpsusedtoliftwaterfromitssourcetothefarm.

11. Whatistheeffectofplantingforesttreesalongtherivers?

12. Listthreetypesofpipesthatcanbeusedinafarmforwaterconveyance.

13. Explaintheagriculturalpracticesthatleadtopollutionofwatersources.

14. DescribehowFrenchdrainsareconstructed.

15. Outlinetheconstructionofcamberedbeds.

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Soil fertility (organic manures)

UNIT 6

Specic objectives

By the end of the topic, I should be able to:

a)denesoilfertility

b)explainhowsoilfertilitycanbemaintained

c)describehowsoillosesfertility

d)deneanddistiguishorganicmatter,manureandhumus.

e)explaintheimportanceoforganicmatterinthesoil

f)describethedifferentorganicmanures

g)preparecompostmanure

h)demonstrateacaringattitudetowardssoil

Soil fertility

Soilfertilitycanbedenedastheabilityofsoiltoproduceandsustainhighcropyields

indenitely.Soilfertilitycanalsorefertothepotentialabilityofsoiltoprovidenutrients

toplantsinadequateamounts,suitableproportions,and,absorbableforms.

Factors which inuence soil fertility

Thesefactorsareoftenreferredtoascharacteristicsofafertilesoil.Theyinclude:

i) Soil depth:Deepsoilshavealargeramountofnutrientsforplantuseandalsoallow

deeperpenetrationofplantrootsforstronganchorage.

ii) Good aeration: Thisisrequiredforhealthyplantgrowthproperdevelopmentofthe

plantrootsandalsoprovidesaconduciveenvironmentforsoilmicro-organismsto

work.Plantsrequirewater.

iii) Good water retention ability:forphotosynthesisandgrowth.Soilsthathaveagood

water-holdingcapacityareconsideredfertile.

iv) Free from weeds: Weedscauseunduecompetitionfornutrientsandsoilmoisture.

v) High level of nutrients:Theseshouldbeavailableinsuitableformsabsorbableby

plantsandindesirableamounts.

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vi) Correct soil pH:Thisshouldbefavourableforthecroptobegrownsincecrops

havedifferentpHrequirements.

vii) Free from soil-borne pests and diseases:Pestsanddiseasesreduceplantgrowthand

lowercropyields.

How soil loses fertility

Soilmayloseitsfertilitythroughthefollowingways:

(i)

Soil erosion-SoilerosioncarriesawaySoilandMicro-organismswhichhelpin

thedecompositionofplantandanimalremainsrenderingthesoilinfertile.

(ii)

Soilcapping-Thisistheformationofanimperviouslayerofsoilonthesurface

Whichpreventswaterinltrationleadingtosurfacerun-offandlowsoilmoisture.

(iii)

Hardpans-Thedevelopmentofhardpanspreventswaterinltrationandplant

rootpenetration.

(iv)

Leaching - This is the downward movement of soil nutrients from the topsoil

downtodeepersub-soillayersbeyondtherootzoneofmostcrops,makingthe

soilbecomeinfertile.

(v)

Monocropping-Thisisthegrowingofthesametypeofcroponapieceofland

seasonafterseason.Thisleadstoasituationwherecertainnutrientsinacertain

zoneareexhausteditalsoencourageshighbuildupofpestsanddiseases.Leading

tosoilinfertility.

(vi)

Continuouscropping-Thisoccursduetotheremovalofnutrientsfromthesoil

byplantswithoutreplenishingthem.

(vii)

Change of soil pH - Soil pH affects availability of nutrients e.g. at low pH

phosphorusisnotavailablewhilepotassiumisbest available.AthighpH,

 potassiumandironarenotavailable.

(viii)

Burning of land - This destroys organic matter changes of soil pH due to the

presenceofash,destroysofusefulsoilmicro-organismsandexposesthesoilto

agentsoferosion,suchaswaterandwind.

(ix)

Accumulationofsalts -Thisis duetohigh rateofevaporation andinadequate

rainfall. This causes osmotic imbalance between the crops and the soil thus

renderingcertainmineralsunavailabletothecrops.

(x)

Infestationbyweeds-Weedscauseunnecessarycompetition for the

nutrientsrequiredforgrowthandplantdevelopment.

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Maintenance of soil fertility

1. Crop rotation:Helptomaximizeutilisationofthenutrientsinthesoilcontrolparasitic

weedsandtopreventpestanddiseasebuild-up.Iflegumesareincludedintherotation

programme,theyaddnitratesintothesoilthusimprovingthesoilfertility.

2. Control of soil pH: The soil pH affects the availability of certain minerals  e.g.

phosphorusbecomesunavailablewhenthesoilpHisverylowi.e.inhighlyacidic

soils.Applylimetoreduceacidity.

3. Control of soil erosion: This is done through afforestation, terracing, contour

ploughing,andplantingofcovercropstopreventtheerosionoftopsoil.

4. Proper drainage:Afertilesoilmustbewelldrainedtofacilitatethegoodaeration

ofsoilforproperplantgrowthandtoenablesoilmicro-organismstoincreasetheir

activities.

5. Control of weeds:Weedscompetewithcropsfornutrients,light,spaceandwater.If

weedsarecontrolled,thenthecropswillyieldbetter.

6. Use of fertilizers:Thishelpstoreplenishthenutrientstakeninbycrops.

7. Minimum tillage:Thishelpstomaintainthesoilstructure.Whenthussoilcannotbe

easilyerodedanditswaterholdingcapacityissustained.

8. Mulching:Whenmulchingmaterialsdecompose,theyaddnutrientstothesoil.They

alsoprotectthesoilfromagentsoferosion.

Organic matter

Organic matter is a product of decomposed  plant and animal remains. All organic

compoundscontaincarbonasthemajorconstituent.However,thisexcludescarbonates

which are inorganic substances. The nal product of organism matter decomposition

humus

Importance of organic matter in the soil

• The dark colour of humus helps in the absorption of heat thus raising the soil

temperature.

• Itreducesthetoxicityintheplantwhichmayhaveaccumulatedovertimethrough

continuoususeofagro-chemicalse.g.fungicides,pesticides,e.t.c.

• OrganicmatterbufferssoilpH.

• Itimprovesthesoilstructurebybindingthesoilparticlestogether.improvinggood

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drainageandaerationofthesoil.

• It provides food nutrients to the soil micro-organisms which are responsible for

decomposition,henceincreasingactivityofmicro-organisms.

• Itincreasesthewaterholdingcapacityofsoilduetoitscolloidalnature,thusimproving

waterinltration.

• Itimprovessoilfertilitybyreleasingnutrientsintothesoil.

• IncreasescationexchangecapacitywhereadsorbedionsgetexchangedwithH

rootsandthusabsorbedthroughtheroots.

Organic manures

Organic manures are organic substances that are added to the soil to supply plant

nutrients.Theyarepreparedfromanimalandplantmaterials.In-organic fertilizersare

articialchemicalsubstancesthatareaddedtothesoiltoreplenishoneormoreofthe

plantnutrients.

Characteristics of organic manures

1. Havelownutrientvalueperunitvolume.

2.Releasenutrientsveryslowly.

3. Arerichinmanyplantnutrients.

4. Theyarebulkyrenderingthemcumbersometotransportandapply.

5. Theyhavenoresidualeffectevenifusedoveralongperiodoftime.

Types of organic manures

Therearethreetypesoforganicmanures.Theseare:

(i) Greenmanure.

(ii) Farmyardmanure.

(iii) Compostmanure.

Green manure

Thistypeofmanureismadefromgreenplants.Theplantsaregrownforofincorporating

intothesoiltodecomposeandtoimprovesoilfertility.Examplesofcropsusedtomake

greenmanurearemaize,sorghum,wildsunower,beans,clovers,andlucerne.Legumes

haveanaddedadvantageinthattheyareabletosupplynitratestothesoil.

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Establishment of the crop:Anyoftheabovementionedcropsisplantedintheeld.

Itisallowedtogrow up to the owering stage, then  ploughed back into the soil and

allowedtodecompose.Lateron,cropsareplanted.Sufcienttimemustbeallowedfor

thematerialtodecomposewellbeforeplanting.

Qualities of good green manure crops

Cropsgrownforgreenmanureshouldhavethefollowingdesirablecharacteristics:

• Shouldbeabletogrowrapidly.

• Shouldbehighlyleafyorvegetative.

• Shouldhavehighnitrogencontentandbepreferablyleguminous.

• Becapableoffasterdecomposition.

• Shouldbeshortforeaseofploughingintothesoil.

• Shouldhavetheabilitytogrowonpoorsoils.

Reasons why green manure is not commonly used

(i) Propertimingofthecorrectstageforploughingintothesoilisnecessary.

(ii) Thereisinadequatelandspacetogrowthegreenmanurecrops.

(iii) Thereleaseofnutrientsbygreenmanurecropsisslow,thus,ittakesalongtimeto

completelydecomposeandreleasenutrientsforcropuse.

(iv) Mostofthegreenmanurecropsarefoodcropsthereforefarmersareunwillingto

destroythemespeciallywherelandislimited.

(v) Theyabsorbavailablesoilmoistureandnutrientsattheexpenseoftheincoming

crops.

Farm yard manure (FYM)/ MUCK/ PENMANURE

Thistypeoforganicmanureisamixtureofanimalwastesandanimalbeddingwhichare

completelyrotten.

Preparation of farm yard manure

Animalwastesandbeddingaretakenfromtheanimalhouses(yards)thenheapedunder

rain-proof shedwhere theyarelefttodecompose.Constantturning-over ormixing is

donetoensureuniformdecomposition.Sprinklewaterifdrytospeedupdecomposition

bythemicro-organisms.Wellrottenmanureisdryandlivelybrokendownandreadyfor

usebutmanurenotfullydecomposedcancausefungaldiseasesuchasblackscurf.

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Freshanimalwasteshouldnotbeappliedtotheseedbedbecausethebacteriawhichbreaks

itdowntoreleasenutrientswillxavailablesoilnutrientsmakingthemunavailablefor

plantuse.

Whenfarmyardmanureisexposedtotheopen,thereislossofnutrientsdueto:

(i)volatilizationofnitrates(itsconversionintoammoniagas).

(ii)leachingandwashingawaybyrainfall.

Therefore,itisimportanttopreparethemanureunderashed.

The nutritional value and quality of farm yard manure depends on:

1. The type of animal producing the manure:Differenttypesofanimalsprovide

varying qualities of farmyard manure depending on their nutrition and nutrient

requirements.Belowistheorderofnutrientrichnessoffarmyardmanure:

 1. Poultrymanure. 2. Sheepmanure. 3. Pigmanure.

 4. Horsesmanure. 5. Cattlemanure.

2. The quality of the food given to the animal:livestockfedonfeedsrichinnutrients

willresultinfarmyardmanurerichinthesamenutrients.

3. Type of litter:Thebesttypeoflitteristhatwithahighurineabsorptioncapacityand

whichiseasytodecomposee.g.strawiscapableofrottingfast.Litterwithahigh

levelofnutrientsproduceshighqualitymanure.

4. Method of storage:Properstorageisnecessarytopreventvolatilization,leaching,

etc. A rain-proof structure is necessary in preparation of farm yard manures. A

concreteoorisnecessarytopreventleachingduringmanurepreparation.

5. Age of the manure:Wellrottenmanureisrichinnutrientsandreleasesnutrients

fasterintothesoil.

6. Age of the animal: Young animals produce inferior quality manure while older

animals give high quality manure. This is because young animals use mostof the

nutrientsforgrowth.

Advantages of farm yard manure

• Itischeaperthanthecommercialfertilizers.

• Doesnotrequirehightechnicalskillstomake.

• Ituseslocallyavailablerawmaterials

• Itimprovesthesoilstructure.

• Itisacheaperwayofmaintainingacleanenvironmenti.e.avoidsaccumulationand

scatteringoflivestockwasteinanimalhousingandsurrounding.

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Disadvantages of farm yard manure

• Itisbulky.

•Transportingormixingthemanurecanbealaborioustask.

• Itreleasesnutrientsslowly.

• Ifpoorlystored,solublenutrientsareeasilyleachedand

 volatilizationcantakeplace.

• Ifusedbeforeitiscompletelyrotten,itcancausefungalinfectionorscorchtheplants.

• Itcanintroduceweedsintheseedbedthroughlitterinfestedwithweedseeds.

Compost manure

Thisismanurepreparedfromorganicmaterialslikesofthedgecuttings,grass,kitchen

wastes,grass,etc.

Compostispreparedbypilingplantresiduesinaheaporapit.Thematerialshouldbe

turned over at regularintervals to facilitate even decayand for proper aeration. Ifthe

material is dry and low in nitrogen content, ammonium sulphate is added to improve

thenutrientcontent.Ifthetemperatureishigh,dampenbysprinklingwater.Protectthe

compost from direct sun and rain. Compost manure is suitable for horticultural crops

sinceitimprovesthesoilstructureandaeration.Oldorganicmanureshouldbeaddedto

introducemicro-organismsnecessaryfordecomposition.

Factors to consider when selecting a compost preparation site

•Drainage-Avoidwaterloggedareasastheywillencourageleachingofnutrientsfrom

themanure.

• Nearness to plot of use in the farm-Thiswillhelpreducelabourandtimewastedin

thetransportationofthereadycompostmanuretothefarm.

• Direction of the prevailing wind -Topreventbadodourscomingfromthepreparation

site,locatesiteontheleewardsideofthemainhouse.

• Size of the farm

Methods of preparing compost manure

Therearetwomethodsofpreparingcompostmanure:

(a) IndoreorPitmethod.

(b) Fourheapsystem(Stackmethod).

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Indore/ Pit method

ThismethodwasrstdevisedataplacecalledIndoreinIndia.Itissuitableforuseindry

areaswheremoistureshouldbeconserved.

Procedure

1.Firstselectashelteredplace,withacoolshadetominimize  evaporation

beneartheeldwherethemanureistobeused.

2.Digapitwiththedimensions1.2mlong,1.2mwide,1.2m  deep.

 Placethematerialsinthefollowingsequenceoflayers:

(i) Roughhedgecuttingsormaizestalkstoadepthof  about 30 cm

toformthefoundation.

(ii) Alayerofgrass,leaves,greenweeds(shouldbeyoung  leaves), and

kitchenwastestoathicknessofabout   30cm.

(iii) Wellrottenmanure/poultrydroppingsareaddedprovidenutrientstothebacteria

necessaryforinitiatingprocessofdecomposition.

 (iv) Addwoodash(toneutralizetheacidity)andphosphaticfertilizers(toimprove

thephosphoruscontentofthemanure).

 (v) Sprinkle with water to initiate the decomposition process and regulate the

temperature.

 (vi) Add a layer of topsoil: This  contains micro-organisms which help in the

decompositionoftheorganicremains.Ifdry,dampenbyaddingwater.

Fig 6.1: Indore method of making compost manure

Field

Top soil

Ash

Manure

Grass, leaves refuse etc.

Maize stalk forming

foundation

PIT A PIT B

PIT C

PIT D PIT E

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Theabovesequenceoflayersisrepeateduntilthepitisfull.Finallyalayerofsoilisadded

tocoverthepitandtopreventtheescapeofgases.Topreventlossofmoisture,spreada

layerofdrygrass,addwater,thencoverthepitwellwitholdironsheetsorwithpolythene.

Five or seven pits are dug in series and materials lled as follows:

PitA,B,C,andDarelledwithfreshmaterialsbutpitEisleftempty.

After3-4weeks,thematerialfrompitDistransferredtopitE;thatfrompitCistransfered

topitD;MaterialfrompitBismovedtopitC;andthatfrompitAtopitB.Thisprocessis

repeateduntilthematerialpreparediswellrottenandreadyforuse.Themanureisusually

ready(mature)after3to6months.

Four heap system (Stack method)

Thissystemusesfourheapsofmaterialscontainingcropresidues,

animalwastes,compostmanure,inorganicfertilizers,andtopsoil.

Procedure

• Clearthesite.

• Levelthesite.

• Fourposts2mhigharexed1.2maparttoformfourcornersoftheheap.

• Fixwoodplanksonthesides.

• MaterialsareplacedintwoheapsasinthePitmethod.ThetwoheapsmakeupHeap

Fig 6.2: Layers of materials used in a compost pit

Ash

Soil

Green vegetation

Compost manure

Rough materials

Soil cover

Grass cover

Stick

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After3-4weeks,thedecomposingmaterialfromHeapIistransferredtoHeapII.After

another3-4weeks,thematerialistransferredtoHeapIII.Afteranother3-4weeks,itis

readyforuse.Heapsshouldhavesamecapacity.

Heap 1

Main eld

Heap 1

Heap 3

3 - 4 weeks transfer

Heap 2

Alongsharppointedstickisinsertedintheheappileinaslantingmannertodetermine

itsdrynessorwetness.Ifitis white, then there are harmful fungi  which destroy the

compost.Themanureheapshavetobeturned every 3 weeks to facilitate aeration for

properdecomposition.Themanureisreadyforuseafter4-6months.

Things to avoid when making compost

(i) Avoidusingindustrialwastesandtownrefusewhenmakingcompostbecausethey

maycontainheavymetalpiecesquantitieswhicharetoxictoplants.

(ii) Avoid use of non-biodegradable wastes e.g. polythene materials as they are not

capableofbeingdecomposedbybacteriaorusingotherbiologicalmeans.

Indicators of well decomposed manure

• Absenceofbadodour.

• Thematerialsarelighter.

• Themanureisdarkincolour.

Advantages of compost manure

• Onedoesnothavetoownlivestockinordertoprepareit.

• Alotofmanurecanbeproducedwithinashorttime.

• Avarietyofmaterialscanbeusedinitspreparation.

• Useoforganicmanureimprovessoilaeration.

• Useslocallyavailablematerialsthuscheaperthanthearticialfertilizers.

• Improvesthesoilstructure.

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Disadvantages of compost manure

• Itreleasesnutrientsslowlyintothesoil.

• Largequantitiesofcompostmanurearerequiredtosupplyenoughplantnutrients.

• Itspreparationislabourintensive.

• Itmayinducesoil-bornepests,suchas,nematodesandearthwormsintheseedbed.

Learning activities

1. Prepareanyofthefollowingorganicmanuresattheschoolfarm:

 (a)Greenmanure.

 (b)Compostmanure.

 (c)Farmyardmanure.

End of Unit 6 Test

1. Whatissoilfertility?

2 Outlinehowsoillosesitsfertility.

3. Listthreetypesoforganicmanures.

4. Statethecharacteristicsofafertilesoil.

5. Explainwaysofmaintainingsoilfertility.

6. Describethecharacteristicsofagoodgreenmanurecrop.

7. Namethelivestockwhichhasthehighestmanurevalue.

8. Whatarethefactorstoconsiderwhenselectingasiteforcompostmanure?

9. Nametwomethodsofpreparingcompostmanure.

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Livestock breeds

UNIT 7

Specic objectives

By the end of the topic, I should be able to:

a)namevariouslivestock,species

b)denethetermslivestock,breedandtype

c)describethevariousbreedcharacteristics

d)statetheoriginofvariouslivestockbreeds

e)classifythevariousbreedsintotypes

f)nametheexternalpartsofthevariouslivestockspecies.

g)demonstrateanappreciationofthesocioeconomicvalueoflivestock

Introduction

Livestock refers to allfarm animals kept for domesticuse and valued as assets.They

includecattle,sheep,goats,pigs,poultry,rabbits,sh,bees,camelsanddonkeys.

Importance of livestock

• Food supply: Livestock are reared to supply food meat, milk, eggs, blood, milk

products,etc.whicharerichinproteins.

• Source of raw materials for industries:Livestockprovideraw materialsthatare

usedinanumberofprocessingfactoriese.g.woolfortextileindustries,milkfordairy

industries,hidesandskinsfortanningfactories,etc.

• Provision of useful by-products:e.g.Cattlehoovescanbeusedtomakeglue,horns

tomakebuttonsandcombs,andbonesandbloodareusedtomakeconcentratefeeds

e.g.shmeal,bloodmealandbonemeal.

• Source of labour: Draughtanimalsareusedfortransportationandploughinginthe

farmse.g.donkeys,camelsandoxen.

• Source of income:Farmerscanselllivestockortheir productstogetmoney.The

income generated is used to meet household needs such as, paying school fees,

purchaseoffarminputsaswellasearningforeignexchange.

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• Provision of employment: Livestock rearing provides employment directly or

indirectly. Direct employment benets the labourers working in the dairy farms,

piggery units, the livestock farmers themselves etc. Indirect employment includes

jobssuchasmanagers,clerks,drivers,accountants,etc.inlivestock-relatedindustries

e.g.milkprocessingfactories,tanningfactories,etc.

• Social-cultural values:

(i)Livestockcanbeusedasamediumofexchangee.g.inbartertradewherethere

isexchangeofgoodswithlivestockorlivestockproducts.

(ii) Asastatussymbol:Largeherdsofcattleareasignofwealthamongthepastoral

communities.

(iii)Forrecreationalpurposesi.e.forsportingentertainment,suchas,camelracing,

cockghtsandbullghtsinWesternKenya.

(iv)For use in social ceremonies e.g. funerals, weddings, initiation, sacrices,

thanksgiving,asdowry,etc.

Common breeds of livestock

Livestock type:Thisreferstothepurposeforwhichtheanimaliskepte.g.dairycattle

arekeptformilk,whilebeefcattlearerearedformeat.Inpoultry,layersarekeptforeggs,

whilebroilersarekeptformeat.

Livestock breed: Thisrefersto agroupof animalshavingsimilar characteristicsanda

commonorigine.g.FriesianandJerseyarebreedsofdairycattle.

Cattle breeds

Therearetwomaincategoriesofcattle:

(a) Indigenouscattle:Thesearelocalbreeds(Bos indicus)e.g.Boran,Zebu,Ankole,are

mainlykeptformeat.

(b) Exotic cattle: These originated from temperate regions e.g. Europe e.g. Friesian,

Ayshire,etc.

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Differences between Exotic and Indigenous Cattle:

EXOTIC(Bos taurus) INDIGENOUS(Bos indicus)

(i) Havenohumps. (i)Havehumpswhichstorefat.

(ii) Adultsarerelativelylarge. (ii)Adultsarerelativelysmall.

(iii) Haveshortandwidehead (iii)Longandnarrowhead.

(iv)Skinisthickandtightonthebody (iv)Skinisthinandloosefallinginfolds.

(v)Susceptibletotropicaldesease (v)Toleranttotropicaldiseases.

(vi) Matureearly. (vi)Maturelate.

(vii)Producealotofmilk. (vii)Producelessmilk

(viii)Canwalklongdistancesinsearchof

waterloweringproduction.

(viii) Can walk long distances distances

pasture and water without lowering

production.

(ix)Haveashortcalvinginterval. (ix)Havealongcalvinginterval.

(x) Havealonglactationperiod. (x)Haveashortlactationperiod.

Dewlap

Thigh

Rump

Loin

Foreank

Sheath

Tail switch

Hock

Tail

Hip

Brisket

Muzzle

Neck

Poll

Pin bone

There are three types categories of Exotic cattle: Breeds

(a) Beefcattle–keptformeat.

(b) Dairycattle–keptformilk.

(c) Dualpurposebreeds–keptforbothmeatandmilk.

Beef Cattle

Beefcattlehavethefollowingcharacteristics:

• They have blocky, square or cylindrical appearances.The  top and lowerlines are

almoststraight.

153

• Theyhavedeepwelleshedbodies.

• Theymatureearlyandgrowfast.

• Theyhaveadeepchestandgirth.

• Theyhavesquarerumpsandheavyhindquarters.

• Theyhavetolerancetohighambienttemperature.

• Theyhavemoreresistancetodiseasesascomparedtodairybreeds.

• Theyhaveahighabilitytoconvertfeedsintoesh.(Highfeedconversionratio).

• Theybreedregularly.

• Theyareshort-legged.

• Theyaregoodforagersandsoareabletofeedonpoorpastures.

Examples of the beef cattle

Aberdeen Angus

Origin: NorthEastScotlandcountyofAberdeen.

Colour: Blackwithlongsmoothcoat.

Shape:Cylindrical,compact,broad,deep.

 Theyarepolled.(Nohorns)

Size: Maturebullsweigh900kgliveweight.

 Maturecowsweigh720kgliveweight.

 Bestinbeefqualityanddressingpercentage.

Disadvantages:

• Theyaresuitedtohighlandareasonly.

• Bullscannottrailcowsonheatforlonghencetheyarepoorbreeders.

Hereford

Origin:HerefordshireinEngland.

Colour:Thebodyisdeepred.Theface,partsbelowthekneesand hocks are

alwayswhite.Thewhitecolourisalsofoundonthe tail end, anks, underline

andbrisket.

Size: Bullsweigh1000kgliveweight.

 Cowsweigh850kgliveweight.

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• Theyaregoodforagersandconvertersoffeedintomeat.

• Theyareexcellentgrazersandtheygainweightveryfast.

• Theanimalsoccasionallysufferfromcanceroftheeyebecausethemembranearound

theeyeisphoto-sensitive.

• Theyhaveabeefyconformation,a longer body, and larger hind quarters than the

AberdeenAngus.

Shorthorns

Origin: NorthEastCoastofEngland.

Colour: Red,roanorwhite.

Size: Bullsweigh800kgliveweight.

 Cowsweigh600kgliveweight.

Shape: Hornsareshortwithayellowishcolourandareblackatthetips.

 Someanimalsarepolled.

 Gainweightfast,i.e.havefastgrowth.

 CommonlyfoundinRumuruti,Laikipiadistrict.

Charolais

Origin: WesternFrance.

Colour:Whiteorcreamywhite.

Size: Bullsweigh1200kgliveweight

 Cowsweigh1000kgliveweight.

Shape: Polled,butsomehaveshorthorns.

• Theyarewelleshed.

• Theygivehighqualitymeat.

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Fig. 7.2: Charolais

Galloway

Origin: SouthWestScotland.

Colour:Blackwithabrownishtinge.

Size: Bullsweigh1000kgliveweight.

 Cowsweigh700kgliveweight.

ItisthoughttoberelatedtoAberdeenAngus,thoughithasalongerbody.Ithasathick

undercoatwithlonghair.TheyarefoundaroundMoloarea.

Boran

ThisisthemostimportantindigenousbeefbreedinAfrica.

Fig. 7.3: Boran bull

Improved Boran has the following characteristics:

• Broadheadandmuzzle.

• Shortneck.

• Straightandbroadback.

• Looseskinhavingshortnehair.

• Usuallywhiteandcanalsobegreyorred.

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• Shortandstraighthorns.Othersarepolled.

• Averageliveweightofupto800kgforbullswhilecowsweigh450–500kgliveweight.

• Regularbreedingability.

• Canwithstanddroughtandheat.

• Canwalkforlongdistancesinsearchofpastureandwaterwithoutloweringproduction.

• Goodgrazersevenonpoorpastures;canevenforageonshrubs.

• Givehighqualitymeat.

• Hasahighresistancetotropicaldiseases.

• Hasalargehump.

OtherbreedskeptinKenyaincludeZebus,SantaGetrudis,AmericanBrahmanetc.

Dairy cattle

Dairybreedsarekeptforthepurposeofproducingmilk.ExamplesareFriesian,Ayrshire,

Guernsey,andJersey.

Characteristics of dairy cattle

• Wedgeortriangular-shapedwhenviewedfromthesides.

• Long,leanandsmoothneck.

• Largestomach.Thisenablesanimalstofeedheavily.

• Largewelldevelopedudder.

• Udderisrmlyattachedandnotpendulous.

• Teatsareuniforminsize,wellspacedandlong.

• Goodstronglegsandwellsethindquarters.

• Large,longandbranchingmammaryveins.

• Haveastraighttopline.

• Bonethinwithlittleesh,pinbonevisible.

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Fig. 7.4: Parts of a dairy cattle

Poll

Tail head

Stie joint

Hock

Switch

Udder

Dewlap

Brisket

Muzzle

Neck

Loin

Rump

Flank

Hip joint

Pin bone

Plate

Examples of dairy cattle

Friesian (Holstein)

Origin: Holland.

Colour: Blackandwhitebody.Thetailswitch,legsandforeheadare  white.

Size: Theyarelargerthantheotherbreeds.

 Bullsweigh900–1000kgliveweight.

 Cowsweigh600–680kgliveweight.

 Calvesweigh35–40kgatbirth.

Fig. 7.5: Friesian

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Characteristics

• Wedgeshaped.

• Docilebutthebullscanbeviciousdependingonmanagement.

• Theyarepoorgrazers.

• Toleranttocoldbutnotheat.

• Under good management, they produce the largest quantity of milk, (about 9 000

kgofmilkonaveragelactationof305days,i.e.about30litresperday).Has3.5%

butterfatcontentinmilk.

• Idealforupgradingindigenouscattleformilkproduction.

Ayrshire

Origin: Scotland.

Colour:Brownwithwhitemarkingsorwhitewithbrownmarkings.

Size: Bulls700kgliveweight

 Cows500kgliveweight.

 Calvesweigh30–35kgatbirth.

Characteristics

• Cowshavestraighttoplines,levelrumpsandgoodudders.

• Hornsarelongandfaceupwards.

• Theneckisthickerandshorterthaninotherbreeds.

• CanwithstandheatmuchbetterthanFriesianbecauseofthelightercoatcolour.

• Teatsaresmallandwellspaced.

• Has4%butterfatcontentinmilk.

• Undergoodmanagementitproducesabout6000kgofmilkperlactationof305days,

i.e.20litresperday.

• Arehardyandcanfeedonpoorpastures.

Guernsey

Origin: Guernseyisland,offthecoastofFrance.

Colour: Variesfrom yellowish brown to almost red with white markings on the legs,

face,tail,switch,andgirth.

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Size: Bullsweigh700kgliveweight.

 Cowsweigh500kgliveweight.

Calvesweigh25–30kgatbirth.

Characteristics

• Goodformilkproduction.

• Fairlyhardyandtoleratemoderateheatandcold.

• UddersarelesssymmetricalthanthoseofJersey.

• Quietandeasytohandle.

• Undergoodmanagement,milkproductionisabout5000kgperlactationof305days,

i.e.about17litresperday.

• Has4.5%-5%butterfatcontent.

• Theyaregoodgrazers.

Fig. 7.6: Guernsey

Jersey

Thisisthesmallestofthedairybreeds.

Origin: EnglishChannelinEngland.

Size: Bullsweigh600kgliveweight.

 Cowsweigh450kgliveweight.

 Calvesweigh20–25kgatbirth.

Colour: Thisvariesfromlightyellowishbrown(fawn)toashadeofblack.Tailswitch

andmuzzleareblack.Insidethelegsandunderneaththestomach,thecolourislighter.

Theeyesarealsoblack.

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Characteristics

• Havestraighttopline,levelrumpsanddishedforehead.

• Havesharpwithers.

• Eyesareprominent(protrude).

• Areexcellentgrazersonpoorpastures.

• Arenervousandsensitive.

• Areresistanttohightemperatures.

• Under good management, milk yield is about 4 000 kgper lactation of 305 days,

whichisanaverageamountof14litresofmilkperday.

• Thecolourofthemilkisyellow.

• Hasabutterfatcontentof5%-5.3%.

Bullsareaggressiveandvicious.

Fig. 7.7: Jersey

Dual purpose cattle breeds

Dualpurposebreedsaregoodforbothmilkandbeefproduction.Theycombineanumber

ofqualitiesofbothdairyandbeefanimals.Examples:Sahiwal,RedPoll,Simmental,etc.

Sahiwal

Origin: IndiaandPakistan.

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Colour:ReddishBrowntosilver.

Size: Bullsweigh500–650kg.

 Cowsweigh400–450kgliveweight.

 Calvesweigh40kgatbirth.

ThecrossbreedbetweenaSahiwalandanexoticpurebreedcanbeabletowithstandthe

harshconditionsofsemi-aridarease.g.hightemperatures,thanthepurebreeds.Itisused

forcrossingwithbeefanddairybreedsforbetteradaptability.

Characteristics

• Adeepbody.

• Veryshortlegsandalotofmeatonthem.

• Abroadforehead.

• Longears.

• Itispolled.

• Alargedewlapandaloosenavelap.

• Resistancetodiseasesandhightemperatures.

Milkyieldis2700kgperlactationof305dayswithabutterfatcontentof3.7%.However,

theyaredifcultmilkers,i.e.theydonotletdownmilkeasily.

Fig. 7.8: Sahiwal bull

Red Poll

Origin: England.

Colour: Deepredwithawhitenose.

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Size: Averageweightofcowsis450kg.

InKenya,thisbreedismostlyfoundinMogotio,Nakuru,Laikipia,etc.

Characteristics

• Havestrongshortlegs.

• Welleshed.

• Suitableforsemi-aridareas.

• Polled.

• Milkyieldisgoodwithabout3%butterfatcontent.

Simmental

Origin: Switzerland.

Colour: Lightredwithwhitepatches.Theheadisalwayswhite.

Characteristics

• Havemediumsizedhorns.

• Verybroadandstraightback.

• Ribsarewellsprungoutanddeepatgirthandabdomen.

• Welleshedonthehindquarters.

• Strong,shortstraightlegs.

• Docile,strong,adaptableandhaveafastgrowthrate.

• Averagemilkproductionis3600litresperlactationof305days,with4%butterfat

content.

• Udderiswellattachedwithlargeteats.

• InKenya,thebreediscommoninTimau(inMeru),Moloareas,etc.

Sheep breeds

Thereareexoticandindigenousbreedsofsheep.

Sheepcanbekeptfor:

(i) Muttonandfat.

(ii) Woolproduction.

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(iii) Dualpurpose(bothmeatandwool).

Characteristics of mutton sheep

• Theyareblocky.

• Havealeveltopline.

• Haveawiderumpandloin.

• Haveshortlegs.

Fig. 7.9: Parts of a Sheep

Brisket

Mouth

Nostril

Head

Top of shoulder

Back

Loin

Rump

Fore leg

Shoulder

Tail

Thigh

Hind leg

Belly

Wool sheep breeds

Theyprovidewoolusedfortextileindustries.Theycanbefurtherclassiedaccordingto

thequalityofwoolproducedi.e.newoolbreeds,e.g.Merino;mediumwoolbreedse.g.

Corriedale;and,longwoolbreedse.g.Romneymarsh.

Merino

Origin:AlongtheNorthCoastofAfrica,thenspreadtoSpainwhereitwasimproved.

Size:Rams,63–80kgliveweight.

 Ewes,49–57kgliveweight.

Appearance

• Wool,hoovesandhornsarewhiteincolour.

• Alotofwoolwhichcomesdowntothelegsandtheface.

• Whiteface.

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• Mouthandnostrilarepinkincolour.

• Ramshavehornswhichgrowinaspiralshape.

Characteristics

• Givelongwoolwhichisslowinshrinkage.

• Thewoolhasnecrimp,i.e.seriesofwavesinbre,thecloserthecrimps,thehigher

thequality.

• Woolstaplelengthis8cm–10cm.

• Itiskeptinmediumandmoderaterainfallareas,e.g.Limuru,Nakuru,Molo,etc.

• Slowinmaturityandhasalambingpercentageof100.

• Haveawelldevelopedockinginstinct,henceeasytomanage.

• Susceptibletofootrot,wormsandrespiratorydiseases,suchas,pneumonia.

• Havedroopingrump.

• Smallandangularinshape.

• Theyarehardy,i.e.cansurviveonpoorpastures.

Fig. 7.10: Merino

Dual purpose sheep breeds

Corriedale

Origin: NewZealand.

Size: Ramweighs84kg–114kgliveweight.

 Eweweighs57kg–84kgliveweight.

ItisacrossbreedofLincolnWoolSheepandtheMerino.

165

Characteristics

• Fleecewhollycoverthebodyofthesheep.

• Openwhiteface,thereforeitcannotsufferfromwoolblindness.(Woolblindnessis

aconditionwheretheeyesarecoveredbythewool).

• Itiswhitewithblackishspots.

• Hornless,docileandhardy.

• Fleeceisheavyandofgoodlengthandweighs5–5.5kgpershearing.

• Lambingpercentageof100–125asaresultoftwinning.

Itisadualpurposebreedkeptinhighrainfallareas.

Romney Marsh

Origin: RomneyinEngland.

Size: Ramweighs100–114kgliveweight.

 Eweweighs84–100kgliveweight.

Characteristics

• Widepollandcoveredwithwool.

• Faceandlegsarewhite.

• Nostrils,lipsandhoovesareblack.

• Fleeceislongandweighs3.6kgto4.1kgpershearing.

• Averageinprolicacy.

• Cansufferfromwoolblindness.

• Itiskeptinhighrainfallarease.g.Molo,andisadualpurposebreed.

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Fig. 7.11: Romney marsh

Hampshire Down

Origin: England.

Size: Ramweighs100–136kgliveweight.

 Eweweighs81–102kgliveweight.

Characteristics

• Faceandearsaredarkbrownandarecoveredwithwool.

• Fleeceisofpoorqualitybecauseofblackbres.

• Lambingpercentageis125–140duetohightwinningrate.

• Importantproducerofnequalitymutton.

• Usedforcrossingwiththelocalbreedtoimprovethemuttonquality.

• Itishardyandcandowellonpoorpastures.

• Prolicandmaturesearly.

Karakul

Origin:FormerUSSR,Iran,Iraq,IndiaandSouthAfrica.Itiskeptforfurproduction

whichisusedtomanufacturecarpets.

Characteristics

• Theeeceisbrownorblack.

• Ithasdroopingears.

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• Ramshavespiralhornswhiletheewesarehornless.

Mutton sheep breeds

Dorper

• Ithasagoodgrowthrateandishighlyprolic.

• ItwasdevelopedbycrossbreedingDorsetHornandBlackHeadPersian.

• Itiswhiteincolourwithablackheadandneck.

• PopularinEastandCentralAfricabecauseit’ssuitableforhotanddryconditions.

DorsetHornisadualpurposebreed.

Maasai sheep

Thisisanindigenousbreedofsheep. It is found in South West Kenya and Northern

Tanzania.Itissmallerthantheexoticbreeds.

Size: Ramweighs35kg.

 Eweweighs25kg–30kg.

Fig. 7.12: Maasai sheep

Colour: Redandbrownorblack.

Characteristics

• Havelonglegs.

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• Hornsaresmallandpointed.

• Muttonqualityispoorbecausetheyutilisepoorpastures.

• Maturesearly.

Black head persian sheep

Keptformuttonproduction.

Origin:Persia.

Colour:Whiteexceptfortheblackheadandneck.

Characteristics

• Polled.

• Welldevelopeddewlap.

• Havefatrump.

• Tailcurvesattheendgivingrisetoanothersmalltail.

Fig. 7.13: Black head persian sheep

Goat breeds

Goatscanliveonveryscantyvegetationwhereitisotherwisedifcultforotherlivestock

tosurvive.Theyaregoodforagers.Theybrowseontreeleaves,shrubsandcoarsegrass.

Goatsarekeptformeat,milkandhair.

169

Meat Goats

East African Goats

Theyaresmallandhardy.Theyarethemostsuccessfulindigenousbreedsinthesemi-arid

lands.Theircolourrangesfrompurewhitetopureblackwithvariousintermixesofroan

andspicklebrown.Hornsvaryinlengthfrom2.5cmto20cm.Tasselsarefoundinthe

breedupto30%.Adultmalesweighupto35kg,whileadultfemalesweigh25kgto30

kg.Theytake5-6monthstomature,andhavetheabilitytosurviveinharshconditions.

Galla goat

Theseareindigenous to Northern Kenya.Gallais also known astheBoranor Somali

Goat.

Colour: White.Theyhavewhitehairswithblackskin,nose,feetandunderthetail.

Size: Billy,30–40kgliveweight.

 Nanny,25–30kgliveweight.

They are mainly reared for meat but recent research indicates they have good milk

productionpotential.

Gallafemalesbreedwellandlivelong(uptotheageof10years).Gallagoatshaveavery

strongdentalsystem.Theyaredocile,easytohandle,anddobetterinthelowaltitude

areas.Earsareuprightandpointforward.

Fig. 7.14: Galla goat

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Somali goat

FoundinNorthernKenyaandisamemberoftheGallagoats.Itiswhiteincolourand

weighsbetween40and50kgliveweight.

Samburu goat

Thisisstillamemberofthegallagoat.

Itweighs40–44kginliveweight.

Boer

ThiswasdevelopedinSouthAfrica.Itisanexoticbreedusedforcross-breedingwith

localbreedsformeatproduction.Thebreedisrearedformeatproduction.

Characteristics

• Fastmaturing.

• Haslongearsandhair.

• Producestwinsortriplets.

• Hasarapidgrowthrateandweightgain.

Anglo-Nubian goat

Origin:NorthEastAfrica.

Colour: Mixedroanthoughwhite-colouredgoatsaremorecommon.

Characteristics

• Haslonglegs.

• Earsdroop.

• Polled.

• Adultfemaleweighs60–75kg.

• Canproduce1–2litresofmilkperday.

• Goodformeatproduction.

• Malesaresoldtothelocalfarmersforcrossbreedingtoimprovethelocalanimals.

171

Fig. 7.15: Anglo-Nubian Goat

Jamnapari goat

ThisisacrossbreedbetweentheIndianJamnapariandtheEgyptianNubian.

Origin: India.

Colour:Rangesfromwhite,roantoblack.

Characteristics

• Earsarelargeandopped.

• Femalesweigh45–60kgliveweight.

• Horned.

• Canproduce1–1.5litresofmilkperday.

• Keptformeatproduction.

Dairy goat breeds

Thesehaveahighmilkproductioncapacity.

Toggenburg

Origin:Switzerland.

Colour:Thebodyisbrownwithwhitepatches.Ithaswhiteearsandawhitestripeonthe

faceandneck.

ThisbreediscommonlyfoundinMeruandEmbudistricts.

Characteristics

• Haserectearspointingbackwards.

172

• Theyarepolledorhorned.Hornsinmalesarelongandcurveback.

• Femaleweighs40–50kg.

• Nannyproduces2–3litresofmilkperdaywithabutterfatcontentof3.5%.

• Haslonghair.

• Faceslightlydished.

• Hastasselsoneithersideoftheneck.

• Sufferfromheatstressresultinginlackofappetite.

Fig. 7.16: Toggenburg

Saanen goat

Origin: Switzerland.

Colour: Whiteorcreamywhite.

Characteristics

• Earsareerectandpointforward.

• Usuallypolled.

• Weighs50–80kgliveweight.

• Canproduce2–3litresofmilkperdayfor3monthswithabutterfatcontentof3.5%.

• WidelyusedinKenyaforcrossingwiththelocalbreedstoincreasemilkproduction.

173

Fig. 7.17: Saanen goat

Mohair goat breeds

Angora goat

Origin:AngorainAsia.

Itiskeptforproductionofmohair.

Averagemohairproductionis3.64kgpergoat.

CommonlyrearedinUSAandSouthAfrica.

Itiswhiteincolour.

Fig. 7.18: Angora goat

OtherbreedsofgoatsaretheFrench Alps and British Alpine.TheBritishAlpinehas

beenusedtoupgradethelocalbreedsofgoats.

Pigs

InKenya,pigsaremainlykeptin-doorsexceptforthebreedingherdswhichmaybekept

outsideinenclosedpaddocks.PigsrearedinKenyaareallexoticbreeds.

174

Pigsarerearedforeitherporkorbaconproduction.

• Porkispigmeatfromayoungpigweighing45–50kgat4monthsold.Themeatis

notsalted.Baconismeatfromanoldpigweighing110kgliveweightslaughteredat

7–9months.Baconmeatissalted.Itisnormallyobtainedfromthebackandsidesof

thepig.

• Pigsalsoprovidebristlesusedformakingsyntheticleatherfabrics.

Fig. 7.19: parts of a pig

Pig breeds

Large White

Origin:YorkshireinBritain.

ItiswidelyrearedinmanypartsofKenya.Itismainlykeptforporkproduction.

Characteristics

• Itislong,largeandwhiteincolour.

• Haserectears.

• Hasdishedfaceandsnout.

• Mostprolicofallthepigbreeds.

• Hasgoodmotheringabilityandisahighmilker.

• Canbeaffectedbysunburn.

• Matureslate.

• Goodconverteroffeedsintomeat.

• Fairlyhardy.

• Hasstronghindlegs.

1 snout 10 dewclaw 19 rump

2 face 11 pastern 20 ham

3 eye 12 hoofs 21 hindleg

4 ear 13 back 22 tail

5 cheek 14 loin 23 teats

6 jowl 15 side

7 neck 16 belly

8 shoulder 17 foreank

9 foreleg 18 hindank

Indicatethenamesofeachnumbere.g

175

• Hasasaggingbackandalevelunderneath.

Fig. 7.20: Large white

Danish Landrace

Origin:Denmark.

Colour:White.

Characteristics

• LongerthantheLargeWhite.

• Earsarelonganddroopovertheface.

• Goodforbaconproduction.

• VeryprolicastheLargeWhite.

• Hasgoodmotheringability.

• Requireshighlevelofmanagement.

• Thebackissaggingandhindlegsareweak.

• Hasastraightsnout.

176

Fig. 7.21: Danish landrace

Wessex Saddle Back

Origin:SouthofEnglandinBritain.

Colour:Blackwithawhitebandthatrunsaroundtheshouldersin  mostbreeds.

Shape: Bodyislongandcurved.

Characteristics

• Ithasastraightsnout.

• Goodforporkandbaconproduction.

• Excellentforkeepingoutsidethantheothertwo.

• Goodforagers.

• Excellentmotheringability.

• Hasdroopingears.

EssexsaddlebackissimilartoWessexsaddlebackonlythatalllegsarewhite.

Fig. 7.22 (i):Essex Saddle back Fig. 7.22 (ii):Wessex Saddle back

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Fig. 7.23: Berkshire

Berkshire

Origin:England.

Colour: Blackwithwhitefeet,faceandtailswitch.

Characteristics

• Faceisdished.

• Earsareerect.

• Producegoodmeatespeciallybacon.

Tam worth

Origin: England.

Colour:Red,varyingfromlighttodark.Itisoftenreferredtoas‘Sandypig’.

Characteristics

• Breedisgoodforbaconproduction.

• Haslonglegs.

• Slowgrowthrate.

• Hardyhencecandowellinoutsiderearing.

• Sowsarenotprolicandtheyhavepoormotheringability.

Duroc Jersey pig

Origin: Britain.

178

Colour:Pureblack.

Characteristics

• Goodformeatbutthecarcassisofpoorquality.

• Fastgrowthrateandearlymaturity.

• Sowsproducelargelitters.

• Sowshavegoodmotheringability.

• Duetoblackcolourtheydonotsufferfromsunburn.

• Theyarenervousandnotasprolicastheotherbreeds.

Fig. 7.24: Duroc Jersey Pig

Poultry breeds

Poultry refers collectively to domesticated birds, and includes chicken, ducks, guinea

fowls,geese,turkeys,etc.Themostpopularpoultryisthechicken.

Chickenarekeptformeat,eggs,ordualpurpose.

Therearefourcategoriesofpoultrybreeds:

(i) Lightbreeds(layers).

(ii) Heavybreeds.

(iii)Dualpurposebreeds.

(iv) Hybridbreeds.

179

Eye

Wattles

Wingbow

Keel

Breast

Thigh

Shank

Toe

Hock

Primary

ights(saddle

feathers)

Tail sickles

Neck hackles

Back

Comb

Beak

Fig. 7.25: Parts of a hen

The Light breeds

These are kept purposely for egg production. They include White Leghorn, Brown

Leghorn,BlackLeghorn,Anacona,Minorcas,Exchequer,etc.Theyarealsoreferredto

aslayers.

Characteristics

• Theyaremediuminsize.Cocksweigh3kg,hensweigh2kg.

• Nevergobroodyandhencearepooreggsitters.

• Theyareexcellentlayers;theycanlayupto220eggsperyear.

• Theyarepoorproducersofmeat.

• Female’scombislargeandopsoveroneeye.

• Male’scombislarge,rmandupright.

• Theyarelightinbody,veryactiveandexhibithighdegreeofcannibalism.

• Combsarefull,redandwaxy.

The Leghorns

Origin:Italy.

ThemostpopularistheWhiteLeghornwhichhaswhiteplumage,yellowlegsandabeak.

OthersareBrownLeghornswhichhasbrownplumage;thehacklesandsaddlefeathers

ofthecocksarered.TheBlackLeghornisblackalloverbuthasyellowlegs.Theyare

nervousandareeasilyfrightened.Theyproducewhiteeggs.

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The Heavy breeds

Theyprovidehighqualitymeatandarebroody.Theyarekeptformeatproductionand

areknownasbroilers.Theyhaveahighconversionrateoffeedsintomeat.Examplesare:

LightSussex,CornishWhite,CornishDarkandJerseyBlackGiant.

Characteristics

• Theygobroody.

• Theyareheavierandbiggerinsize.

• Theygrowfast.

• Henslayfeweggs.

The Light Sussex

Origin: Britain.

Colour:Theyarewhite,withblackhacklefeathers,wingsandtail.

Size:Cockweighs4kgliveweight.

Henweighs3kgliveweight.

Theylaysmalltintedeggs,butthebreedismainlykeptformeat.Theyhavealargebody

withgooddepthandbroadshoulders.Thebreastiswelldevelopedandthebirdshave

excellentmeatqualities.

Thebirdshavesinglecombsandcolouredbeaks,shanksandtoes.

Cornish

Origin: England.

Size: Cocks,3.6kgliveweight.

 Hens,3.5kgliveweight.

Characteristics

• Hasyellowskinandisanexcellentmeatproducer.

• Hascompactfeathering.

• Thebirdshavedeep,broad,andwideshoulders.

The dual purpose breeds

Thesearekeptforbothmeatandeggproduction.Theyinclude:RhodeIslandRed,Black

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Australops,and NewHampshire Red.They arehighly recommendedfor newpoultry

farmers.

Characteristics

• Haveatendencytogobroody.

• Haveacarcassofgoodquality.

• Rarelyexhibitcannibalism.

• Diseaseresistant.

Rhode Island Red

Itisthemostpopularofallthedualpurposebreedsofbirds.

Origin: America.

Size: Cocksweigh4.0kgliveweight.

 Hensweigh3.5kgliveweight.

Colour: Plumageisglossyanddarkredorbrown-redincolour.Somebirdshaveblack

colourinthetailandwingfeathers.Thefemaleshaveaslightblackmarkingat

thebaseofthelowerneckfeathers.Earlobesandeyesarered.Legsandshanks

aredeepyelloworreddish-brown.Thebeakisreddish-brown.

Characteristics

• Thebirdlaysbrown-shelledeggsandgivescarcassofgoodquality.

• Theyaredocilehenceeasytomanage.

• Thebirdhasabroad,deep,angularbody.

• Wellformedbreastthatprotrudesforwardwhilethebackisat.

Theonlydisadvantageistheiryellowskinwhichisunpopularwithconsumers.

New Hampshire Red

Origin:America.

Colour:Theplumageischestnutredandithasasinglecomb.

Size: Cockweighs4.5kgliveweight.

 Henweighs3.0kgliveweight.

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Characteristics

• Thebodyislessangular.

• Hasarapidgrowthrate.

• Veryhardy.

• Matureearly.

• Hashighfertilityandgoodhatchability.

• Thehensaregoodlayersofbrown-shelledeggs.

Black Australops

Origin:Australia.

Colour:Plumageisshinyblackallover.

 Brilliantredcombandwattles.

Size: Cockweighs4kgliveweight.

 Henweighs3kgliveweight.

Characteristics

• Veryuprightandwithlongback.

• Thebodyslopesgraduallytowardsthetail.

• Goodlayersandalsogivegoodqualitymeat.

• Itisthemostbeautifulamongthebreeds.

• Hensgobroodybutoftenrunouttooearly.

(Toomuchfatstopsthehensfromlayingeggs).

Hybrids

Thesearebirdsbredtosuitaparticularmanagementcondition.Ahybridisabirdproduced

bycrossingtwodifferentpurebirdbreeds.Theyaresuperiorinperformance,canattain

2kgin56days,andcanlayover220eggsperyear.

They are selectively bred to gain weight quickly, and to lay more eggs than the pure

breeds.However,theyhavelowresistancetodiseases.Examplesofhybrids:ThornBer

404and704,HylineStock,Shavers,Sterling,Ross,SuperWhite,BrownEggers,Kigwaru

Queen,andIssaBrown.

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Camels

Camelsareusuallyreferredtoasthe‘shipsofthedesert’becauseoftheirbroadfeetwhich

enablethemtowalkoverlooseandshiftingsandwithrelativeease.Theyarehardyand

cansurvivelongperiodsoftimewithoutwaterbecauseofthefatinthehump.Theyhave

theabilitytovarytheirbodytemperature.Theyalsohavealargewaterdrinkingcapacity

andproduceveryconcentratedurine.

Therearetwotypesofcamels:

(i)Dromedary(Camelus dromedarius)

(ii)Bactrian(Camelus bacterian)

Dromedary (Camelus dromedarius)

Origin:ArabiaandSyria.

Characteristics

• Hasonehump.

• Keptformeat,milk,wool,andtransport.

• Hasalightbody.

• Fasthenceusedforrapidtransport.

• KeptbythenomadiccommunitiesinASALareasofKenya.

Face

Hump

Rump

Hock

Belly

Knee

Neck

Fig. 7.26: Dromedary (Camelus dromedarius)

Bactrian (Camelus bacterian)

Origin:CentralAmerica.

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Characteristics

• Heavilybuilt.

• Hastwohumps.

• Hasshorterlegsthanthedromedary.

• Adaptedtoliveincoolerregions.

• Hasthickcoattoconserveheat.

• ItshedsitscoatinSpring.

• TheyarefoundinwildstateinGobidesert.

Fig. 7.27 Bactrian (Camelus bacterian)

Rabbit breeds

Purpose of keeping rabbits

To provide meat, fur or hair. Theirskin is used to make soft upholstery,e.g. car seat

covers.

Neck

Ear

Wrist

5 Clawed forelimb

Eye

Cleft lip

Vibrisee(whiskers)

Belly

Back

Ankle

Foot with 4 claws

Rump

Shank

Thigh

Tail

Fig. 7.28: Rabbit

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Rex

Origin:Britain.

Keptforitshighqualityfurthatisusedtomanufacturehighqualitycoatsandgarments.

Martensable

Colour:Lighttomediumdark;anksandrumphavelonger whitehairs. Thebelly is

white.

•Itiskeptformeatproduction.

•ItisacrossbreedofMartenandSiameserabbits.

Earlop

Heavybreedhencegoodformeatproduction.

Ithasdroopingears.Itiswhiteincolour.

Fig. 7.29: Earlop

California White

Colour: Whitewithblackordarkbrownears,eyes,nose,andfeet.

Size: Adultbuckweighs5.0kgliveweight.

 Adultdoeweighs3.5kgliveweight.

Veryprolicandwidelyusedforcrossingwithotherbreeds.Itiskeptformeat.

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Fig. 7.30: California White

New Zealand White

AlsoknownasKenyaWhite.

Colour:Whitewithpinkeyes.

Size:Adultbuckweighs5kgliveweight.

Adultdoeweighs4.5kgliveweight.

Thebreediskeptformeat.

Characteristics

• Bucksareblockyandcompact.

• Theyhavealongbodyandwideback.

• Breedisprolicandfastgrowing.

Fig. 7.31: New Zealand White

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Chinchilla

Colour: Greyish.

Size:Adultweighsabout3to3.5kgliveweight.Itiskeptformeat.

Fig. 7.33: Chinchilla

Flemish Giant

Colour:Darkgrey,blueblackandfawn.

Size:Heavyrabbitbreed.

•Maturebuckweighs7.0kgliveweight.

•Maturedoeweighs5.5kgliveweight.

•Bestformeatproductionduetogoodbodyconformation.

•Giveshighqualityfur.

Angora

•Thisiskeptforfurproduction.

•Bodyconformationispoor.

•Averagesizeis2.5kg.

Terms used to describe livestock

Therearedifferenttermsthatareusedtorefertolivestockatdifferentages,sexoruse.

Thetermsandnamesusedvaryfromonelivestockspeciestoanother.

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Terms used in cattle

Calf: Ayoungcattle.

Heifer: Youngfemaleafterweaningandbeforecalving.

Cow: Afemalecattleafterrstcalving.

Bull: Adultmalecattle.

Steer: Youngcastratedmale.

Bullock: Oldormaturecastratedmale.

Terms used to describe goats

Kid:Ayounggoat.

Doeornanny:Maturefemale.

Buckorbilly:Maturemale.

Terms used to describe sheep

Lamb: Ayoungsheep.

Ram: Amalesheep.

Ewe: Afemalesheep.

Terms used to describe pigs

Piglet: Ayoungpigfrombirthtoweaning.

Gilt: Afemalepigafterweaningandbeforefarrowing.

Sow: Afemalepigafterrstfarrowing.

Boar: Amalepig.

Lig: Acastratedmalepig.

Terms used to describe poultry

Chick: Aone-daytoeight-weekbird.

Pullet: Ayoungbirdfrom8weekstolayingstage.

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Cockerel: Ayoungmalefrom8weekstomaturity.

Hen: Afemalebird.

Cock: Amaturemalebird.

Capon: Acastratedcock(malesterile).

Broiler: Birdkeptformeatproduction.

Layer: Birdkeptforeggproduction.

Spenthen: Alayerthathasstoppedproducingeggs.

Terms used to describe rabbits

Kindling: Ayoungrabbit.

Doe: Afemalerabbit.

Buck: Amalerabbit.

Learning activities

1. Visitthelivestockfarmnearyourschoolandidentifythefollowing:

 (a) Livestocktypes.

 (b) Livestockspecies.

 (c) Livestockbreeds.

 (d) Identifytheirexternalparts.

2. Identifytwoanimalsoneachlivestocktypeandparticipateinidentifyingtheanimal

withthebestbodyconformationforaspeciedpurpose.

3. Classproject:

 Studentsshouldcomewithphotographsofdifferentlivestockbreedsfromnewspaper

cuttings,magazines,etc.,mountthemonmanilapaper,andlabelthemappropriately.

End of Unit 7 Test

1. WhatistheimportanceoflivestocktoKenya’seconomy?

2. Outlinethegeneralcharacteristicsofdairycattle.

3. Whatisthemostdistinguishingfeaturebetweenafriesianandajersey?

4. NamefourbeefcattlebreedscommonlykeptinKenya.

5. Outlinefourreasonsforkeepingsheep.

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6. ListsixsheepbreedskeptinKenyaindicatingthereasonsforkeepingeach.

7. WhatcharacteristicmakesgoatsveryadaptableinKenya?

8. Pigsaremainlykeptforporkandbacon.Givetwoexamplesofpigskeptforeachof

them.

9. A pig is large,white,has a dished snout anderect ears.What is the name of this

breed?

10. DifferentiatebetweenWessexSaddlebackandEssexSaddleback.

11. Nameanytwobirdsclassiedaspoultry.

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Agricultural Economics

UNIT 8

Specic objectives

By the end of the topic, I should be able to:

a)deneeconomicsandagriculturaleconomics

b) explain basic concepts of economics

c)descibetheimportanceofagriculturaleconomics

d)explaintheimportanceoffarmrecords

e)describethedifferenttypesoffarmrecords

f)keepfarmrecords

Economics dened

Economics is a social science concerned with the production and consumption of

goods and services using limited resources in order to satisfy human wants.

Agricultural economics dened

Agricultural economics is a branch of economics which deals with the distribution,

management and productivity of land.

Agriculturaleconomicsaimsathelpingfarmers

toachievemaximumprotwhileminimising the cost of production. It concerns itself

withvariousfactors of production,suchas,land,labour,capital,andmanagement.

Factors of production

Therearefourfactorsofproductionwhichareimportantinagriculturaleconomicsnamely:

land, labour, capital and management.

Landisthefactorofproductionconsistingofallnaturalresources,i.e.minerals,rainfall,

rivers,etc.

Labouristhefactorofproductionthatentailsalltheproductiveworkdone,andincludes

thepeopleorworkersemployedintheproductionprocess.

Capitalreferstoallthematerialwealthavailablefororcapableofuseintheproduction

e.g.tools,machinery,farminputsandmoney.

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Managementreferstotheskilfulorresourcefuluseoftheotherfactorsofproductioni.e.

capital,time,labour,land,etc.

Importance of agricultural economics

Helps to:

• maximiseprots.

• minimisecosts.

• meetdemandtothesatisfactionoftheconsumer.

• utiliseresourceseffectivelyandefciently.

• increaseproduction.

Basic concepts of economics

Therearethreebasicconceptsineconomics,namely:scarcity, preference and choice, and

opportunity cost.

Scarcity

Scarcity refers to a situation where the resources are limited in supply and are therefore

insufcient to supply all the goods and services needed, i.e. resources are insufcient to

meet demand.

Limitedlandresourceslimitsnationalproductionandcanleadtoscarcityoffoodsupplies.

Limited capital is determines the availability of materials, equipment and machinery

essentialforproduction.limited,productionwillalsobelimited,thuscreatingscarcity.

Inavailabilityoflabourandpoormanagementcanalsocontributetoscarcity.Ingeneral,

scarcityofresourcesleadstoanincreaseindemandwhichinturnresultsinanincrease

inthepriceofcommodities.

Preference and choice

Owingtothelimitedresourcesandtheresultantscarcity,itisnecessarytodecidewhich

resourcesshouldbe utilized tobestsatisfythe consumer’s wants. Choice is the act of

deciding which resources should be allocated to meet production needs and satisfy the

consumer’s needs.Thechoicemadewilldependonthepreferenceofboththeconsumer

andproduceri.e.whattheyvaluehighly,orwhatismostprotable.

Opportunity cost

Opportunity cost refers to the return foregone or the value of the best foregone alternative

when a resource factor is taken from its best alternative.

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Thenatureofhumanneedsiscompetitive.Eachtime,youmakeachoicebetweenyour

needs,youforgotheotherneedsbecauseyoucannotaffordallofthematonceowing

tolimitedresources.Eachtimeyouchoosetobuyonecommodityandnottheother,you

makeasacrice.Forinstance,ifmaizeisgrownonapiecelandwhichcouldhavebeen

usedtogrowwheat,thenoneforegoes(misses)thereturnsexpectedfromthewheatthat

wasnotgrown.Theopportunitycostofgrowingmaizeisthevalueofwheatforegoneor

sacriced.

Example

IfahectareofwheatgivesareturnofKshs.2000,andahectareofmaizegivesareturnof

Kshs.2500,thenthefarmerwillgrowmaize.Inthiscase,theopportunitycostofgrowing

maizeistheKshs.2000whichthefarmerwouldhavereceivedhadhe/shegrownwheat.

Opportunitycostonlyexistswherethereisanalternative.Ifnoothercropcouldbegrown

ontheland,thentheopportunitycostofgrowingmaizeiszero.

Opportunitycostissaidtobezerowhen:

(i)theitemisfree/plentiful.

(ii)thereisnootheralternative.

Farm records

A farm record is a set of information stored or retained by the farmer about farm events

as they occur in the farm business.

Itispermanentinformationaboutthefarmkeptforfuturereference.Thisinformation

must be collected, stored and analysed properly. It may then be used in the decision

makingprocesse.g.infarmplanning.

Just like any other business, farming aims at maximising prot. This is only possible

throughthekeepingofaccuraterecordsofallfarmtransactionsandtheanalysisofthese

records.

Record keeping will prevent guessing or estimating in the farming business. This is

becausetherecordskeptareprecise,concise,complete,andshowactualamounts,weights

andmeasurements.

Importance of keeping farm records

Farmrecordshavethefollowingimportance:

(i) Providea historyof whathasbeen happeningonthefarm.This canbeusedfor

comparisonpurposes.

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(ii) Helpinplanningandbudgeting.Thiswillenablethefarmertomakeappropriate

choicesanddecisionsinthefarm.

(iii)It is a requirement by nancial institutions before any loan can be approved to

determinetheneedandcapabilityofthefarmertoserviceorrepaytheloan,aswell

as,todeterminewhetherthefarmercanbenetfromthecreditifadvanced.

(iv) Determinethenancialstatusofthefarm.Thiswillhelpindetectingtheft/fraudor

lossesveryearlyandinresolvingthesituation.

(v) Helpinsettlingdisputesunderjointownershipifoneofthepartnersdiesinthestate

i.e.nothavingawill.

(vi) Help in proper management of various routine livestock or crop production

practices.Forexample,farmrecordsassistthefarmerstoknowthedatesofcalving,

vaccinations,harvesting,etc.

(vii) Provideactualtradinginformationforincometaxassessorstoavoidovertaxation.

(viii)Forcomparisonpurposesbetweenfarmersdealinginthesameenterprise.Thishelps

todiscoverthecausesforthedifferences.

(ix) For determining prots or losses in order to know whether business should be

expandedordiscontinued.

(x) Helpsinsettlinginsuranceclaimse.g.incaseofreoranyotheraccidentinthe

farm.

(xi) Providelabourinformatione.g.terminalbenets.

Types of farm records

Therearemanydifferenttypesofrecordskeptinafarm.Theyvaryintheinformationor

detailstheycontaindependingontheparticularuse.However,afarmershouldmaintain

asimplesystemofrecordkeeping.Thevarioustypesofrecordskeptinthefarminclude:

(i) Breedingrecords. (ii) Feedingrecords.

(iii) Productionrecords. (iv) Healthrecords.

(v) Fieldoperationrecords.(vi) Inventoryrecords.

(vii) Labourrecords. (viii) Marketingrecords

Breeding Records

Theserecordscontaindetailsaboutthebreedingprogrammesofthelivestock.Theyrecord

matingandparturitiondates,animalsusedforbreeding,ageoftheanimal,etc.

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Theinformationcontainedinthebreedingrecordvarieswitheachlivestockspecies.

Examples of breeding records

1. Cattle breeding records

Informationontheserecordsincludes:

(i)Name/numberofthecow/dam(animalidenticationmark).

(ii) Datewhenthecowwasserved.

(iii) Dateofpregnancydiagnosis.

(iv) Calvingdate(expectedandtheactual).

(v) Sexandweightofthecalf.

(vi) Sireusedforserving.

(vii) Remarkse.g.difcultcalving.

Theformatofthebreedingrecordsvary.

Exampleofabreedingrecord.

CATTLEBREEDINGRECORD

Dam…………………………………  Sire……………………………………

Weightat1stservice………………  Ageatcalving………………………

Ageat1stservice…………………  Dateofconception…………………

Heat Service Pregnancy Dateof Expected Actual Calf Calfno. Remarks

dates A.I/natural diagnosis drying dateof dateof sex andweight

 mating date off calving calving  atbirth

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2. Sheep breeding records

Informationincludes:

• Ewenumber.

• Serviceperiod(date).

• Lambingdate.

• Numberoflambsborn.

• Numberoflambsweaned.

• Remarks.

Number

of ewes

Service

period

(month)

Lambing

date

Number

of lambs

born

Lambing

percentage

Number

of lambs

weaned

Remarks

3. Pig breeding records

Informationincludes:

• Sownumber.   • Actualdateoffarrowing.

• Sirenumberandbreed.  • Expecteddateoffarrowing.

• Dateofservice.   • Numberofpiglets.

• Averageweightofpiglets • Remarks.

 atbirth.

Feeding records

Proper feeding is an importantprerequisite for any successful livestockproduction. A

farmerneedstoprovidelivestockwithadequatefeeds.Itisalsoimportanttomonitorthe

stocklevelinthefeedstoresothattheanimalshaveenoughfeedsatalltimes.

Information in a feeding record

• Enterprisename.  • Amountoffeedsused.

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• Typeoffeed.   • Balanceoffeed.

• Amountoffeedsreceived. • Numberofanimals.

• Remarks,e.g.feedpalatable,etc.

NAMEOFENTERPRISE:…………………………TYPEOFFEED:………………

Date Numberof Amountof Amountof Balanceof Remarks

 animals feedreceived feedused feed

Production records

Productionrecordsshowtheamountofproduce(yield)byvariousanimals.Theseinclude

milk,eggs,crops,honey,etc.Theinformationcontainedintherecordsthereforevaries.

Milk production record

Thisindicatestheamountof milkproduced byeachlactatingcowinthemorning and

evening.Therecordsareusedtocalculatethetotalsforeverymonthandsubsequentlyfor

thewholelactatingperiod.Theserecordsareveryusefulwhenoneiscarryingoutculling

inlivestock.

Total

pmampmampmampmam

1st 2nd 3rd ....................

31st

Cow's name/ No.

Month...................................................................

Milk to calves.

Total

Milk to customer

Dates

Egg production record

Thisshowstheeggslaideveryday,thenumberofbrokeneggs,andthelayingpercentage.

Itactsasaparameterforgoodmanagementandassistsinestablishingthevicesinbirds,

e.g.eggeating.

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Date Numberof Numberof Numberof Numberof Laying% Remarks

 layers eggs eggsbroken eggsnot

  collected  broken

Laying%=

Number of eggs collected

Number of layers

x100

Health records

Healthisanimportantfactorthatinuencestheproductivityoflivestock.Therefore,a

farmershouldcloselymonitorlivestockatalltimes.Theserecordsshowdiseasecontrol

measurestakene.g.vaccinationdates,treatmentdates,drugsused,diseasesymptoms,etc.

Whencullinganimals,theserecordsareconsulted.

ExampleofaHealthRecord.

Name/Noofanimal…………………………………

Date Symptom Diagnosis Veterinarian Treatment Cost Remarks

1. Vaccination records.

Vaccinationsaregiventoanimalstoproduceimmunityagainstspecichighlyinfectious

diseasese.g.anthrax,footandmouthdisease,rinderpest,Newcastleinpoultry,etc.

Diseases Date1 Date2 Date3 Remarks

2. De-worming records

Internalparasites,suchas,wormsareamajorcauseoflowyieldsinlivestock.Therefore

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thereisneedtocontrolworms.Dewormingmustbedoneatregularintervalsforeffective

control.Dewormingrecordswillremindafarmerofthelastdateofdeworming,dateof

nextdeworming,andthedrugusede.g.Nilverm.

Name/No.ofanimal...............................................................................

Dewormer Date1 Date2 Date3 Remarks

Field operation records

These are records that show various eld operations in crop production. The eld

operationsinclude:planting,weeding,harvesting,landpreparation,fertilizerapplication,

etc.Theexpectedandactualdatesfortheseoperationmustberecorded.

Informationcontainedintheeldoperationrecordsare:

• Plot/eldnumber.

• Areaoftheeld(i.e.intermsofhectarage).

• Cropsplanted.

• Dateofploughing.

• Dateofplanting.

• Fertilizersused,amountappliedanddateofapplication.

• Typeofseedused,theamountandcost.

• Diseasesandpestsidentiedandcostofcontrol.

• Weedingdates,methods,andcost.

• Harvestingdate,quantitiesofproduce.

• Labour.Howmanyworkersarehiredandtheirwages.

Inventory records

An inventory is a document that shows the assets in a farm. There are two types of

inventories.Consumablegoodsinventory,whichisusedtorecordthematerialsusedin

theproduction process, e.g.agro-chemicals,drugs, animal feeds,etc.Permanent goods

inventory,whichtakesstockofthefarmmachinery,tools,andequipmentavailableinthe

farm.Itshouldindicatethenumberandconditionofthetoolsandremarksstatingwhether

thetoolsareadequate,needrepair,orreplacement.

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1. Consumable goods inventory

Thisshowsreceiptsandissuesofconsumableitems.

FolioNo.…………………………… Item………………………

Date   Receipt    Issues

 Qty Sign Qty Sign Qty Sign Qty Sign Qty Sign

2. Permanent goods inventory

Date Item Quantity Writtenoff Balanceinstock/depreciationvalue Remarks

Labour records

Therearetwotypesoflabourusedinthefarmi.e.hiredlabourandfamilylabour.Hired

labourcaneitherbecasualorpermanent.

Afarmerneedstokeeprecordsonlabouruse.Thishelpsinthepaymentofwagesand

calculationofoperationcosts.Therecordwhichshowsdailydutiesattendanceiscalleda

masterroll.Afarmermightalsokeepalabourallocationrecordtoshowhowmanypeople

wereallocatedaspecicenterprise.Thiswouldhelpcalculateprotforeachenterprise.

Masterroll

Monthof…………………………………

Nameof Dayspresent Totaldays Rateof Total Advanceor Total Signature 

worker 1234…31 worked pay pay deductions due ofworker

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Marketing records

Marketingrecordsareveryimportantinintensiveorlargescalefarming.Althoughother

recordslikecashanalysis,journalsandledgersassistafarmerineasilycalculatingthe

incomefromsales,marketingrecordshelpinestablishingharvestingtrends(i.e.periods)

andmarketswheretheproduce/commoditywassold.Thishelpsthefarmertocompare

pricesforvariousmarketsandtodeterminewheretosellinordertoachievemaximum

prots.

Commodity………………………  FieldNo.………………………………

Date Amountsold Price/unit Totalrevenue Wheresold Remarks

Learning activity

 Visittheschoolfarmmanager’sofceoranearbyfarmandidentifythevariousrecords

kept.

End of Unit 8 Test

1. Denetheterms:

 (a) Economics.

 (b) Agriculturaleconomics.

2. Statethethreebasicconceptsofeconomics.

3. Listthefourfactorsofproduction.

4. Listanysixtypesoffarmrecordskeptbyafarmer.

5. Whyshouldafarmerkeeprecords?

6. Whatistheimportanceofkeepinghealthrecordsbyafarmerwhoownsdairycattle?

7. Differentiatebetweenapermanentgoodsinventoryandaconsumablegoodsinventory.

8. Listdowntwoconditionsunderwhichopportunitycostdoesnotexist.